UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA GRADUATE  COLLEGE

THE BALLETS RUSSES IN SPAIN: THE HISTORICAL FUSION OF FLAMENCO AND CLASSICAL BALLET

A THESIS

SUBMITTED   TO THE  GRADUATE FACULTY

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of
MASTERS  OF FINE ARTS  IN DANCE

By

BARBARA  FILE MARANGON

Norman, Oklahoma 2019

THE BALLETS RUSSES IN SPAIN: THE HISTORICAL FUSION OF FLAMENCO AND CLASSICAL BALLET

A THESIS APPROVED FOR THE SCHOOL OF DANCE

BY

Dean Mary Margaret  Holt,  Chair

Boyko Dossev Dr. Allison Palmer Dr. Sandie  Holguín

© Copyright by BARBARA FILE MARANGON 2019 All  Rights  Reserved.

DEDICATED  TO

ALL MY TEACHERS  FROM DIAGHILEV’S   BALLETS   RUSSES
George Balanchine, Alexandra Danilova, Felia  Doubrovska  and Pierre  Vladimirov

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank the  Massine  family  for  granting  permission  to view  the films  of their  father,  Leonide  Massine,  at the  New York Public  Library  of the  Performing  Arts.
A special  thanks  to Dean Mary Margaret  Holt  for  all  her help  as a teacher, mentor,
and friend.

And a thank you to my husband Gianni for all  his  support,  along  with  Bepi and Gina who  kept me  company  the  long  days and nights   at the computer.

Table  of Contents

Introduction	1
1.	Methodology
Flamenco Dance Classes	6
2.	History  of Classical Ballet and Flamenco Dance	11
3.	 The  History of Ballet in Russia
Ballet in Russia…	26
4.	Flamenco  and the Ballets Russes in Spain
The  Birth of the Ballets Russes, Part 1…	34
Leonide  Massine and Flamenco, Part 2	40
5.	Flamenco  Contrast  and Similarities  to Other Dance Forms
Character Dance	48
Bolero School	52
6.	Analysis of the  Three-cornered Hat Ballet
The Farruca	55
Choreography  of the Miller’s Dance	60

7.	Flamenco  and Duende
Duende	66
Conclusion	70
Glossary
Spanish   Terminology…	74
French Terminology…	77
Bibliography	78

Introduction

Serge Diaghilev once said, “There are only two schools of Dance: Classical Ba let and Flamenco.”   The  two dance forms  met  and  married  in  Spain  in  1917-1918. The  story of the Ballets Russes detour in Spain and the introduction of Flamenco into the repertory is worthy of a complete study. What did Flamenco dance contribute  to the  Ballets  Russes  on their  Spanish  tour from 1917-18? What did the famous  company  give  to Flamenco? The  objective  of this  thesis project is  to discover  if  the connection  of the two dance  forms  developed  a third   form.
The meeting of Classical Ballet with  Flamenco  began  with  the  advent  of World  War I, when the nomadic Ballets Russes was invited to remain  under  the  protection  of Spain’s  King Alfonso. The tour of the Spanish  Peninsula  became  a productive and creative  detour  for  the company which formed important liaisons. It was the choreographer  Leonide  Massine  who  introduced  and  established   the  influence   of Flamenco   into  the  Ballets   Russes.  Massine discovered Flamenco in Madrid and followed his passion to the Romani caves and taverns  of Andalusia. He studied with the great Flamenco maestro, Félix Fernández García. The union  of Flamenco  with  Classical  Ba let   is  observed  in  Massine’s  Three-cornered  Hat, which  has survived   the  passage of time  and is  still  performed  by ballet  companies   today. The  first  step is   to
retrace the footsteps of Massine by documenting what he perceived visually and physically in his experience  with  Flamenco.
The thesis project will begin with the methodology followed by a historical, social, and political perspective.  The  history  of the  Ballets  Russes  and Flamenco  will  offer  enlightenment  into  why there  were  extreme  differences   in  both dance forms  from  their  inception.  Classical
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Ballet was developed in the  French Court  of King  Louis  XIV. Flamenco  evolved  from  the migration  of dance from  India,  through  the Middle  East, arriving  in  Spain  with  the  Romani  around 1425, when the Arabs occupied Spain. The contrasts between the two dance forms were immense.	However,  political  turmoil  and the  onset  of the war brought  them  together  and this  is where  the  study of the fusion   begins.
As primary source for this study,  the film  Juana Vargas “La Macarrona” is  profound. Juana Vargas was a famous, popular Flamenco dancer  in  1917.  She was a Gitana, or Spanish Roma, and she created a style  which  has  influenced  many  Flamenco  dancers.  She danced during the period considered  the Golden  Age  of Flamenco,  between 1869 and 1910, and  beyond  that time.  Massine  made a short  film  of her dancing  and here we see exactly  what  he visualized   through  the camera  lens.  This  film  is  thought  to be one of the  most  important  treasures  of Flamenco contained at the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts. The Library also  contains the 1937 film of Massine and Toumanova dancing in the ballet  the  Three-cornered Hat which  reflects  much  of what  the  choreographer  learned  from  the  Vargas film.
Another primary source is Massine’s memoir, My Life in Ballet. He writes about his experiences observing the Flamenco dancers in the cafés of Madrid. Their elegance and rhythm fascinated him. The website for the  Archivo  Manuel  de Falla  has  a collection  of photos  and programs  reflecting  this  period.  Manuel  de Falla  composed  the music  for the  Three-cornered Hat, and worked closely with the Ballets Russes. He was a guide to Diaghilev and Massine for Spanish culture.  Some  of his  personal photos show him  with  the choreographer,  impresario  and  the  company.  One photo in  particular  shows  the  company  in  costumes  for  the Scheherazade
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ballet in the garden of the Alhambra in Granada where they had performed. At the same  time, Flamenco flourished in the  Romani  caves of Granada  and the  proximity  of both set the  stage  for the  meeting  of the  two dance forms.
There  are many  secondary  sources  of information  to be used in  assembling  the thesis. The book The World of Diaghilev presents a broad view of the history of the Ballets Russes  in Spain, with brief stories of bizarre incidents that give flavor to the overall picture.  The  principal dancer Grigoriev  reca led  “our  tour took us for  the  most part to smaller   places in    Spanish
provinces, where we met with many amusing adventures.”1 The book also affirms the success of Massine’s  Three-cornered Hat which  premiered  in  London,  England,  on July  22, 1919. It mentions the music composition  of Manuel  de Falla  for  the ballet  and the scenery  designed  by Pablo Picasso. In 1917, Diaghilev, Massine, Falla, and Félix Fernández García, traveled together across Spain. They picked up bits and pieces of music and dance, blending this into a new form. Massine  added the classical  ballet  style  to the Flamenco  dance  steps he had learned.   At that     exact  moment  the  genesis  of a new  dance collaboration  began.
Another extensive and informative book is; Massine: A Biography, by Vicente García- Márquez. It is the best reference to Massine’s process of learning Flamenco and applying it to his choreography.   The  book recounts  details  that  are not  found  in  other  documents.  The  Ballets Russes arrived  in  the  ancient  Arabic  city  of Cádiz,  where  dancers  from  the  East  once entered Spain.   The  company  departed for  Madrid  and gave  their  first  performance   on May 26, 1917 at the Teatro Real. While in Madrid, Massine frequented the Prado museum. Goya inspired his choreographic   designs  but Massine  was attracted  to the painter  Velásquez.   This  is  an

interesting fact because Spanish art also influenced Massine’s work beyond simply learning  new  steps. His passion for art overflowed into his choreography. Also,  the choreographer  studied  the moves  of the  bullfighter,  and the  personalities  of Spain.  He became  absorbed in  the  Spanish culture  and,  while  visiting  a Cathedral  in  Sevi le,   he  remarked;  “the  altar  dances with  castanets and the  orchestra  in  front  of the altar.”2
Other sources  of information  include   101 Stories of the Great Ballets.  This  reference  book contains a chapter on the Three-cornered Hat which details  every fact  about the ballet  including  the  complete  story,  theater  dates, dancers,  and all  information  important  to the production. Also, it is necessary to compare  the  2005 version  of the  Three-cornered Hat found  in the  video;  Paris Opera Ballet: Picasso and Dance, Tricorne with  the 1937 original   film.
Essential to understanding Spanish Dance today is The Language of Spanish Dance by Matteo. The book is the most complete dictionary and reference manual of Flamenco. Here is where the analysis begins on the fusion of Classical  Ballet  and Flamenco.  A few  terms  and positions  are similar   in  both dance  forms,  however,  Flamenco  has  no set lesson plan.
The  thesis  commences   with  the  methodology  and  studying  the Art  of Flamenco  along with  scholarly  research.  This   is  followed   by the  history  of both Classical  Ballet  and Flamenco. The chapter for the historical documentation will be interwoven and the historical data will  be paralleled   as closely  as possible  to the  time  frame  of both dance forms.	Chapter  two will  outline the  early  roots of Flamenco  in  India,  and the  journey  of the  Romani  through  the  Middle  East  up to their final destination in Spain. Chapter two will also  detail  the  history  of Classical  Ballet beginning  in  Italy  and later  development  in  France.  This   chronicle   is  important to

understanding the development  of Classical  Ballet  as it  relates  to the  Three-cornered Hat, which is in the center  of this  study.  The  evolution  of costumes,  space, scenery,  and props is  examined. The next chapter will begin the  historical  arrival  of Classical  Ballet  in  Russia  which  is the foundation  of the Ballets  Russes.  There  will  be a focus  on the  creation  of the Ballets  Russes outside  of Russia  up to its  exile   in Spain.
The introduction of Flamenco to the Ballets  Russes  repertory by the  choreographer Massine will follow. At this point in the discussion it is necessary to compare  Flamenco  to the  Bolero School and Character Dance, because both are connected to Classical Ballet and have introduced  Spanish  folk  dance into  their   dance forms.	Flamenco  lessons,  performances,  and writings demonstrate Massine’s experience with the Spanish culture. A chapter will examine Flamenco’s Farruca dance in the Three-cornered Hat and the role of Classical Ballet in the choreography.  Finally,   the  role  of duende in  Flamenco  will  be analyzed.
Usua ly Massine’s Three-cornered Hat or Tricorne is examined in a broad overview and explored  as a ballet  with  a Spanish  theme.  The  subject  has been touched  upon but never discussed  in  depth. This  thesis  will  break down one specific   dance,  the  Farruca, and  argue the
authenticity of the choreography as Flamenco Dance or Classical Ballet. How much  of one dance  form or the other Massine used in his choreography is debated. This study is useful to future choreographers when determining the mixture  of dance  forms  in  choreography  and how it  can  enrich  a production.   Finally,   the question  of how  one dance form,  Flamenco,   is  able  to compliment   another  form,   Classical  Ballet,   will   be answered  in  this  study.  The  climactic   results of the  research will   be confirmed   in  the Conclusion.

Chapter 1 Methodology
In 2016 I knew practically nothing about Flamenco,  but it  conjured  up two words in  my  mind; Passion and Fire. As a ballet dancer the closest I ever came to Spanish dance was Don Quixote, Paquita, and the Spanish Dance in The Nutcracker. The dancers  wore Spanish  costumes and performed  with  castanets  or fans,  and the  ballet  was on pointe.  In this  context  the dancers  were only imitating Spanish dance from the waist up. My lack of knowledge regarding Flamenco  Dance  and its’  culture   would  soon change,  thanks  to this  research project on the  Ballets   Russes and its connection to the dance form. Also, Diaghilev’s Ba lets Russes is a subject  that  holds  a profound interest for me because of my  connection  to the  dancers;  Balanchine,  Danilova, Doubrovska, and Vladimirov were my teachers. In order to further my research into the fusion of Flamenco and Classical Ballet it was necessary  for  me  to study  the art of Flamenco.  This  way I  could  understand  the choreographer  Leonide  Massine’s  process of study which  would  give   him   the  knowledge  to create his  ballet,  Three-cornered Hat, in  1918 for the  Ballets  Russes.  My  studies  began with  the  Introduction to Flamenco class at the University  of  Oklahoma.
At the first  class,  I imagined  that  we would  begin  with  a sequence  of fixed steps, movements, and exercises similar to the  structure  of the  Classical  Ballet  barre.  Instead,  I discovered that there is no set lesson or preparation  that  every  teacher  must  follow.  There  is  no format, so a teacher designs their own class, usually constructed around a great amount of choreography. We started with footwork  and, as a ballet  dancer,  I found  this  difficult  because  we use our feet much  differently.    One difference   is  that  ballet  footwork  does not make  a sound. The

golpe as it is named is similar to the tap dance stomp. There are some resemblances between tap dancing  and Flamenco.  The  knees are almost  always  bent,  which  I was prepared for  after  studying Ballroom dance and the  swivel  movement  of the  hips  with  the  Cuban Rumba.  Bent knees, swivel hips, and fast, sharp footwork were combined together.  The  other  anomaly  in Flamenco  was working  with  music   in  twelve  compas instead  of the usual  eight  counts  in  Classical  Ballet.
Props were  introduced  at various  stages.  Canes were used to beat the tiempo on the   floor.

In addition, they were utilized for upper body stretching, which helped with the arms  that  are positioned behind the  head and back twists  or torcido.  This  is the  typical  posture  of the Andalusian and Flamenco dance. Fans were used in choreography  and while  I had mastered  the  right hand in ballet, the  left  hand  used  in  Flamenco  needed  time.  The  shawl  came  later  in  the course and substituted using  our skirt  as a prop. These  props are also  found  in  oriental  dance forms.  The  Be ly  dancers’  veil  becomes  the  Flamenco  dancers’  shawl.  The  castanets  added music to arm and hand movements,  and they were taught  in  combinations producing  diverse  sounds. This destroyed the myth I believed that  the  pattern was always  the same,  and that  both hands had an equal function  in  producing  sound.  Through  research  I found  that  the  castanets were used in only two Flamenco dances, the zambra and the siguiriyas.  The  Romani  also  used finger snapping called pitos. In performances without live music, the castanets shape the sounds compatible with the mood  and dramatic  story.  The  castanets  perhaps  substituted the Middle Eastern  zils   for  the Romani,   but  this  is another exploration.
We worked extensively on exercises to articulate the beautiful hand movements of Flamenco.  The  rest of the  class  was choreography.   The  dances have  names  according  to their
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mood, but every teacher choreographs their  own interpretation  with  the basic  steps. My favorite  was the Alegrías, or joy and  happiness.  The  dance came  out of the Romani  quarter  of Cadiz,  and is the dance preferred by Flamenco dancers. 1 After learning the Alegrías, we proceeded to the Bulerías  dance,  which  signifies   laughter,   joking,  and mockery.  The  Romani  of Jerez specialized in this dance, and it is often added to the end of the Alegrías. The third dance we studied was the Soleares which represents  solitude,  loneliness,  and a touch  of sadness.  This  was the most difficult  to master until I began to understand the refrain in  the  music  reflecting  the  steps. Some escuela bolera steps were added by our professor to all three dances, and this made the dances more interesting  and  challenging.   While   unusual,   the  addition  demonstrated  the  compatibility  of the two dance forms  together  in  choreography.
The class was introduced to the  Rumba Gitano, a hybrid  of the  Cuban Rumba  and Flamenco.  It was adopted by the  Romani,   so it  was personalized   by the name,  Rumba Gitano, and is  considered  Flamenco’s  sexiest dance.	In addition  to classroom  study,  The Language of Spanish Dance by Matteo, was an excellent  reference  book. This  manual  served  as a dictionary  and was essential to understanding terminology and the history of Spanish  Dance  including  Flamenco. Matteo explains in the introduction  to the book that  Spanish  dance was passed down  from teacher to student  and nothing  was ever written,  which  is  the case in  the  art of Flamenco dance. Unfortunately,  many  of the  steps and dances were lost  over the  years as a result  of not  being codified. However, Matteo used every  resource  possible  to compile  this  reference  and it  is very complete.
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1 Matteo Marcellus Vittucci. The Language of Spanish Dance, A Dictionary and Reference Manual. pg.14. Second Edition. Princeton Book Company, Publishers 2003. Hightstown, New Jersey. Copyright 1990, 2003 by Matteo Marcellus Vittucci.

As part of my research, I visited the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts to observe the films of Massine, the Spanish Dancers, the Three-cornered Hat, the Farruca, and all documents on the subject of the Ballets Russes in Spain.  While  I was researching  the  subject,  I decided to take classes at the Vivo Carlota Santana  Flamenco  School.  There  I studied  with  the master teacher and dancer, Juana Calá. The studio was small, without air conditioning, and the temperature was in the upper  nineties,  but this  did  not discourage  anyone.  The  class  was packed with  students,  male  and female   of all  ages, and  each of us  had a square  foot of space.  A Flamenco  guitarist   accompanied  us. There  was no  warm-up,  castanets,  or other  props, but from the beginning,  the study  of a choreographed  piece.  The  footwork  was a challenge,  but  years of ballet  training  helped  my  upper  body movements.  Everyone  tried  to copy Juana,  but  because  of the size of the class, general corrections rather  than  individual  ones  were made  by the teacher.  At one point Juana seemed to separate from the  role  of the  teacher to the  role  of artist/dancer.  There was pain in her meditative expression and the deep suffering  of the  Flamenco  dancer  came  forth. This  was not  an imitation  of a character  or role,  but the  true  eruption  of emotion  and sentiment.
After this experience, I decided to take another class  at the  school with  a different  teacher  for comparison. I took class with Sonia Olla, another master teacher at the Vivo Carlota Santana Flamenco School.  Again,  there  were many  students  and this  time  a drummer  accompanied the class. Sonia gave  a warm-up  of fast  and precise  footwork.  As I was the  new  student  in  the  class, she scrutinized   my  work. Her choreography  contained  more  golpe, strikes,  hits,  stamps  of the feet, than Juana’s class. The class was sma l  enough  so that  individual  corrections  were possible. Sonia  corrected  me  for leaving  too much  space between  my  feet  which  hindered  the speed of
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footwork. Ballet dancers consume space whereas Flamenco dancers  are more  contained  and internal. At one point Sonia the artist/dancer, like Juana, erupted with a profound expression  of passion  while   executing  her choreography.
The  following  semester  at the University  of Oklahoma,  I continued   to study  Flamenco   in a Performance Practice class along with Character dance. Now I could compare and contrast the University  classes  with  the  choreography  I had  learned  in  New York. I had a better understanding for the footwork after the master classes in New York, but  I enjoyed  the mix  of classical steps, or escuela bolera, with Flamenco in the Performance Practice  course.  More focus was on the upper  part of the  body and the different   hand  shapes used  in  the  Flamenco  dance  form. Props and the ba let dancer’s freedom to cover space were added to the choreography. As  ballet  dancers we are often  more concerned  with  a perfect  technique,   so the fire  and  passion  that  I witnessed  in  Juana  Calá  and Sonia  Olla  was missing  from  our performance.

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Chapter 2
The  History of Classical Ballet and Flamenco  Dance

“Flamenco is a combination of gypsy and Spanish dance movements  with  a strong underlying Oriental flavor.”1 The seed of Flamenco goes as far back as India. An Indian dance named  Kathak underwent  a slow  transformation  as it  traveled  on the long  journey  to  Spain.
Many Kathak  dance movements   remained  the  same  or similar   and  this  gives  us a clue  to its history and its  eventful  relationship  to Flamenco.  During  the journey,  Kathak mixed  with  other dance forms  and eventually  evolved  into  Flamenco  in  Spain.2  Classical  Ballet  has origins   in   Greece that go back to 540-300 B.C., around the same period  that  Kathak dance was recorded for the first time in India. Alexander the Great spread the Greek civilization as far as Rome with his conquests. However, when the Romans  reconquered  the Greek settlements they  adopted their cultural  tradition  of dance.  The  Greeks considered  dance  to be gestures  partnered  with  song.
They gave dance the elegance,  style,  and beauty,  which,  centuries  later,  became  the  basic  form for  Classical  Ballet dancers.
The Romans looked upon the Greeks as the  pallbearers  of civilization  and admired  their art, philosophy, and ideals. Greek dramas became popular in the  Roman  culture.  The  theatrical Greek plays included  a masked  chorus  of singers,  dance,  and gestures  added to the  dialogue  of the actors. The voice of an actor was often difficult to hear especially in the immense venues of Roman  arenas  and amphitheaters.    Because  of this,  gestures  became  more  important  than the
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1 Wendy Buonaventura. Serpent of the Nile: Women and Dance in the Arab World, pg. 42. Publishing Group, Inc., Brooklyn, New York. Saqi Books. 1989, 1994, 1998.
2 K. Meira Goldberg, Ninotchka Devorah Bennahum, Michelle Hefner Hayes. Flamenco on the Global Stage,
Historical, Critical andTheoretical Perspectives. Introduction, and Marta Carrasco Benítez. Three Centuries of Flamenco. Kathy Milazzo. Ancient Dances of Cádiz and Creations of Myth.McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. Jefferson, North Carolina, Copyright 2015.

actor’s dialogue and silent acting was developed. This  was the birth  of Roman  pantomime  and it would  be an important  part of narrative  ballets,  including  the  Three-cornered Hat. Classical Kathak dance began as a religious art form performed in the Indian temples  around  400 B.C. and  later in the durbars, or royal courts  in medieval  India.  Dance  movements  accompanied  the  stories or poems  performed  to song and  music.  The  Romani  introduced  a modified  form  of Kathak to Spain after they carried  the art from  India.  “Gypsies  of a l lands  share  a common  origin  in  India and a common language, Romany, which is based on the Hindu,”3 or the ancient Hindu liturgical language,   Sanskrit.  The  Hindu  religion  is  the core of the  Romani  superstitions  and beliefs.
However, the religious aspect of Kathak dance was eliminated later  in  court  dances.  Many theories, myths, and legends have  recounted  the  migration  of the  gypsies  from  India  to Spain over centuries. For example, there is undated antique documentation relating to the entertainers employed by the Imperial Court in Kathaka. “The origin of Kathak dance is traced in ancient literature   to the  story-te lers,   the Kathakas.”4
The Kathakas, or nomadic minstrels, traveled and performed before their permanent employment in the Court. “Minstrels were akin to slave entertainers.”5 According to very old documentation, it was discovered that the performers were robbing the Treasury and  they were banished. The minstrels became wandering Romani tribes. They  traveled  from  India  to search for work and flee  hardships  and starvation.   They  migrated  to other  countries  and  carried  their  arts  and traditions   with  them,  including  some of the Kathak dance  form.6    For hundreds  of years  the
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3 Buonaventura, pg.39
4 Ragina Devi, Dance Dialects of India, pg.166. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. Private Limited. Delhi. Third Revised Edition, Delhi 2002.
5 Anna Ivanova, Dance in Spain, pg.38. Praeger Publishers, Inc., New York.
6 Buonaventura, pg. 39

Romani earned a living as performers. It is written in the eleventh century Book of Kings, “The  Persian poet Firdausi brought nearly one thousand gypsies  to Persia  to entertain  his  subjects,  but they  preferred  a wandering  life.”7    The  Romani  absorbed the local  traditions,   native   music   and folk  dance, and took ownership,  but  did not  remain  in  one  place.
When Christianity was established as the  official  religion  around  380 A.D.  in  Europe, dance was prohibited  by the  Church  and buried  for centuries.   The  Church  forbade  dance for public  entertainment,   but street  dancing  began to emerge  as a physical  expression  during   religious festivals. This form of movement could not be suppressed  by the  priests  and religion. Medieval dance started as a social activity in public,  and with  popularity, steps, patterns,  and rhythms were  created.8  Steps repeated  in  public  social  dances  were named  and handed  down from  generation to generation.	At the same  time   in  the  Middle  East, the  Romani  were absorbing
local dance movements and steps while migrating toward Spain. The assimilated  movements  and  steps were passed down to their   disciples.
While   folk  dancing  in  Europe  was not  the forerunner  of Classical  Ballet,  it  demonstrates the  human  passion  for  dance even when  it  was forbidden  by the  Church.  But  most  important   of all,  it  was the predecessor and underpinning  of Court dancing  which  was the foundation  of  Classical Ballet. When all entertainment venues  were closed  around  530, actors, singers,  dancers, and mimes performed in the streets.  They  became  wandering  vagabonds,  but  they kept their  art alive.  In 744, the  Pope banned  performers  from  society,  the  Church,  and a Christian  burial.
Earlier,   the political  timeline   states  that  the Moors conquered  Spain in  711, and brought  slave

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7 Buonaventura, pg. 40
8 Carol Lee. Ballet in Western Culture, A History of Its Origins and Evolution. pgs. 1-8. Allyn and Bacon, A Viacom Company, MA. Copyright 1999 by Allyn and Bacon.

dancers for their own entertainment at court. “Exotic dances were performed by we l-paid professionals   or slaves,  and Moorish  entertainment  was attached  to Christian  courts.”9   When  they invaded the Peninsula, a fusion of culture inevitably influenced dance in Spain. The Moors encouraged public  dancing,  especially  street  dance which  their  Christian  predecessors in  Spain  had forbidden.  Over time,  cultural  traditions   were exchanged   in  these  open venues.
While entertainment in  public  in  Europe  was forbidden,  medieval  guilds  kept the performing  arts out  of the  total  darkness  of religious   prohibition.    In town center  festivals, members performed dances to religious themes relating  to their  particular guild  patron saint.  The guilds   competed  with  each other  and created elaborate  parades while   dancing  in  beautiful costumes  with  masques.  By the end  of the Middle  Ages,  musicians   formed  their  own guilds   to play music for the  upper-class  social  dances.  This  position  gave  them  the  power to control, supervise,  and  teach dance  for centuries.  They  were responsible for  the music,  performance, notation,  and  choreography  of dance at that  time.10  There  were troubadours,  poets and  songwriters, who performed at Court from 1100-1244. Minstrels and joglars were part of the troubadour’s  company.  The  minstrels   provided  music   and the  joglars performed  circus skills
such as acrobats, stilt-walkers, and tightrope walkers. The troubadours, minstrels, and joglars eventually fused into one, the dancing  master.  They  used  the peasant  dance that  developed  over the years as the foundation and refined them for  courtly  dancing.  The  troubadours  created rigid  rules  in  dance composition  that  were recognized   later  in  Renaissance   court ballets.11
In the  tenth  century,  miracle,   morality,   and mystery  plays  became  popular  and were

14

9 Ivanova, pg. 38
10 Lee,  pgs. 6-8
11 Ibid., pgs. 16-19

approved by the Church. Slowly dance began to emerge in religious productions. The medieval pageant  was the predecessor to court  entertainment  in  the Renaissance   and the  early  beginnings of Classical Ballet. Costumed singers and dancers  participated  in  allegorical  themes  of medieval life. The pageants incorporated elaborately decorated floats were the forerunners  for  theatrical scenery,  and therefore  closely  related  to classical  ballet.12    The  difference   between Classical Ballet and Flamenco  became  very  clear.  The  former  would  rely  on the  development  of scenery and theaters  to define  the  narrative  accompanying  the  dance form.  The  latter  developed  a personal narrative in its painful journey that did not need scenery to give meaning to steps or movements.
At the end of the Middle Ages, dance in  Europe  began to emerge  from  centuries  of darkness. The Renaissance was the  rebirth  of a new age of enlightenment, and  Italy  was at the center of this new era. Parallel to the beginning of this  period  was the  arrival  of the Romani  in  Spain. The Renaissance idea was based on the ancient  Greek concept  of the  potential  of human ability and creativity. The fall of the Byzantine Empire to the Ottoman Turks  in 1453 sent a huge number of scholars and artists to flee to Italy. Their wealth of knowledge launched the idea of humanism.  At the same  time  rich  Italian  merchants  became  patrons  to the new  migration  of scholars and artists.  The  Church  believed  that  mankind must  live  only  for the  rewards  of the afterlife,  which  was the belief  of most  of the  people  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Gradually,   the strong hold of the Church on the European population was diminished and the Renaissance was born.13 Dance  became  significant  with  the Renaissance society’s  new  commitment  to science  and  the arts.    Spectacular  entertainment  became  less  religious   and more  politically  orientated. Singing
15

12 Lee,  pgs. 19-20
13 Ibid., pgs. 24-25

and dancing  were presented  during  interludes   between mythological  and allegorical    spectacles.14

There is a theory that the first migration of Romani tribes moved westward to Persia from Afghanistan. They spent time in Persia, or Iran, which is demonstrated by the  adoption  of Persian words into the Romani language. “They exercised their talents  as professional  musicians  in  that country, and a diffusion of Oriental musical  instruments  and styles.”15 The  connection  or link  between Kathak Indian dance and Flamenco is  Arabic  Dance.  The  Kathak dance  form  began adopting  an Arabic  influence  though  retaining  many  original  movements.   “Controlled   footwork and the way movement  rises  from  the  hips  to the  outstretched  arms.”16  There  are curves  of the body and arm movements that give expression and harmony  to foot  patterns.  In addition  there  are still,   sudden poses coming   out of quick,  turning  movements   that  characterize   the  later development   of the  Flamenco   Dance  form.17    Northwest  India,  the  Romani  place  of origin, appears to have  played  an important  role in  the  development  of Oriental  music.18    The  composer
Manuel  de Falla  stated that  the  principle  ingredients   of the  canto jondo, or deep song, demonstrate similarities to songs from India and other Oriental  populations.  19  Interestingly,  the India  Ragas  have  a twelve-beat  rhythm  and sequences  that  are comparable  to Flamenco.20
The Romani kept moving in a northern direction to Turkey and then into  Europe.  Records show  that  the Romani  arrived  as early  as 1425 in  Spain.  They  brought  the assimilated  Kathak
16

14 Lee,  pg. 28
15 Bernard Leblon. Gypsies and Flamenco, pg. 3. University of Hertfordshire Press. Learning and Information Services. University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, Hertfordshire. Copyright 1994 Bernard Leblon.
16 Buonaventura, pg. 42
17 Devi, pg. 168
18 Leblon, pg. 1
19 Ibid., pg. 70
20 Ibid., pg. 56

dance movements and mixed them with local Spanish and Arabic  movements.  One is  la danza serpent or the snake dance, the name used by the Spanish  to refer  to the Arabic  Dance  of the women. “The woman’s dance of the  Spanish  gypsies  performed  at special  gatherings  uses  similar hip  movements   to those  of Arabic  Dance.”21   Another  example  is  the  Zambra Mora or Moorish
Dance. The  Zambra is  considered  to have  more  Indian  roots than  any Roma  dance and a form  of it was still  performed  in  the Cathedral  of Toledo  in  the twentieth  century.22 Traditional  Spanish  and Arabic  dances mingled   together,  along  with  Indian  Dance,  and Flamenco  Dance  began to
take shape. The Romani created a new  style  of music  that  originated  with  the  meeting  between East and West.23 They were  often called  Gitanos from  Egypt  or Zincali;  the black  men  of Zend or India.24 These nomadic tribes carried the songs of their ancestors from the Middle East and incorporated them into local music.25 Flamenco became “an island of Oriental music in a sea of Occidental  culture.”26
By the end of the fifteenth century in 1492, Granada, the last stronghold of the Moors surrendered. At this time dancing was very important in Italy and Milan was Europe’s center  for  dance. The ideas of the  Italian  Renaissance  spread to France,  and the  Ballet  de Cour became solidly  planted  in  French  culture.    Catherine  de Medici  was the leading  innovator   in  shifting dance dominance  from  Italy  to France.  Twenty  years  before  her birth,  the  Romani  were forced into  settlement  by law  in  Spain  or risk  death.  In 1499, Ferdinand  and Isabella  of Spain
17

21 Buonaventura, pg. 44
22 La Meri. Spanish Dancing, pg. 90.A.S. Barnes & Company, New York. Copyright 1948, La Meri.
23 Leblon, pg. 5
24 George Borrow. Zincoli: An Account of the Gypsies of Spain. pg. 8. Astounding Stories, Copyright 2015. www.Astounding-Stories.com
25 Leblon, pg. 5
26 Ibid., pg. 72

established  laws  against  the nomadic  life-style   of the Romani.   Many of those who  chose to abandon the  nomadic  life-style   took refuge  in  caves, especially  in  Granada,  where  they  would hide from the law.27 In 1533, Catherine, the daughter of Lorenzo  di Medici,  the  most  important patron of Italian Renaissance, became Queen of France by marriage. She brought Italian artists, composers,  designers,   and dancing  masters  to the  French Court.   Her lavish   spectaculars  made  for political propaganda  are recorded in  designs,  paintings,  and literature.  The  number  of dances and dancers are described along with patterns in various writings,  but the  steps and choreography  were not preserved.28
In the late Renaissance, 1550-1610, an Italian by the name of Fabritio Caroso wrote the Nobilita di Dame and began to codify steps, create rules, and to document dances. Dance at the Renaissance Court usually took place  in  a ballroom,  and  it was considered  an essential  part of  social flirtation, so most of the choreographic composition was created for couples or groups  of couples. However, the diligent  preparation  of the  dancers  to impress  the  spectators  at the  Court gave theatricality to the dances. Though Caroso’s choreography  in  the  Nobilita di Dame was created for social dancing in a ballroom and not for theatrical performance on stage, his Notes on  Style reflected similar rules to classical ballet as we know today.  Dancers  of the Renaissance projected nobility by their manners, and ballet  dancers  continue  this  quality  in  performance. “Caroso’s  idea  of noble  beauty included  erect posture,  quiet  arms,  level  gaze,  and straight   legs.” He added other  important   qualities:  “Vigor  and elegance  should  combine  in  a style  essentially    of
18

27 La Meri, pg. 79
28 Lee,  pgs. 24-28

strong  leg  and footwork.”  These  are principles   of classical  ba let. 29

Le Ballet  Comique de la Reine, or the  Dramatic   Ballet  of the  Queen, is  considered  by dance historians to be the first  ballet.  It was performed  in  1581 and incorporated  music,  dance,  verse, and scenery. It was seen as a “political, philosophical, and ethical mirror of its day.”30 The production was the creation of Balthasar de Beaujoyeulx, hired by Catherine de Medici as court dancing master. The venue was the salon of the  Petit-Bourbon  palace  in  the Louvre  and  the performing space was a three-quarters-in-the-round area. The 9,000-10,000 spectators for the one time  only  spectacle  watched  from  galleries   above the  dance floor  as the entire  action  was
directed to the Royal family sitting at one end of the salon. Free-standing scenery created the atmosphere for the narrative. This was the precursor for theaters and ballet productions as the Renaissance period came to a close in 1600.31  Free-standing  scenery was a significant  innovation  and gave dimension to stage sets in Classical Ballet thereafter. An example  of this  is  the  Mi ler’s  house  and the  village   bridge  in  the Three-cornered Hat, three  hundred  years later.
Le Déliverance De Renaud or The Liberation  of Renaud  was presented  in  1617 in  honor of King Louis XIII. It was the next important step in the theatrical art of Classical Ballet. The performance was held in the Grand Salle of the Louvre with a proscenium arch stage and a fixed backdrop with shifting  scenery.  At the  end  of the performance, the  dancers  would  descend from the stage and dance with the audience. The seventeenth century marked the  beginning  of public theaters.  In 1637, Cardinal  Richelieu,   the minister   for  King  Louis  XIV, built   the most advanced
19

29 Fabritio Caroso. Nobilità di Dame. pg. 368. 1600. Julia Sutton translation and editing. Dover Publications, Inc., New York. Copyright 1995.
30 Lee.  pg. 44
31 Ibid., pgs. 44-45

theater in Paris, Palais Royal.32 Four years earlier,  in  1633, the Law  of Philip  IV prohibited  the Romani  from  their  traditions,  especially  entertainment.33   So while   Classical  Ballet  was emerging in France,  the  art of Flamenco  receded into  the background  by force  in  Spain.  The caves  where the  Romani  hid  would  be their  simple,   unembellished  theaters.
By 1645, ballet was confined  to the stage  area, and the proscenium  stage  meant  a change  in choreography. Dancers needed to move from side  to side on the  elevated  stage,  so this meant there  was a need for  more  turnout.  Vertical  dimensions  were important  now, so steps with elevation became necessary. The performance was no longer for social reasons but theatrical entertainment. One of the most significant changes was the separation of the audience from the dancers.  The  dancers  no longer  descended from  the  stage  into  the public  at the end  of the
performance. The greatest idea that the Renaissance took from antiquity was to build special places  for  entertainment.  Theaters  became  the  permanent  home  for  theatrical dancing.34
French King Louis XIV brought on the baroque period of ballet which  united  myth  and  fable to music and dance. Poetry, song, and costumes were elevated to the next level  of  sophistication along  with  the  machines  that  created artistic  special  effects.  The  baroque period was the response  to the strict  aesthetics of the  Protestant  Reformation.   For the court  ballet  he built the  lavish  palace  of Versailles  in  the French  countryside. Louis  XIV was a great  ballet patron, took dance lessons  every day,  and appeared in  many  ballets.  In 1653, he is remembered for  his  role  as Apollo. This  earned him  the  title  of Sun King in  Le Ballet  de la Nuit or The Ballet
20

32 Lee,  pg. 58
33 Leblon, pg. 21
34 Lee,  pgs. 55-61

of the  Night,  prepared by Jean-Baptiste  Lully.35	Lully   was a dancer  and composer of ballet music who worked for King Louis XIV.36 He worked with Pierre Beauchamp, noted for his new concepts  in  ballet  composition. Both men  worked with  the  French playwright  Molière  and believed  dancing  should  relate  to dialogue   and  plot.37
In 1713 the Académie Royale de Musique became a training school for dancers under  the order and signature   of King  Louis  XIV,  and the  direction  of Lully,   Beauchamp,   and Molière.
Later,  in  1784, the  first  children’s   school for  future   dancers  was formed  within  the Académie.38

However, children had studied Flamenco with their elders long before  this  date.  The  Académie Royale de Danse began to give  French names  to ballet  steps, new  and old, many  originally  from  the  Renaissance,   and Flamenco  used Spanish  names  for  their  steps. Classical  Ballet  and  Flamenco  continue   to use this  terminology  today in  French  and  Spanish  respectively.	“At the beginning of the eighteenth century, a set formula had been established and adhered to for  the  creating  of theatrical  ba lets.”39
Professional  ballet  advanced  quickly  with  the introduction  of the  danse d’école. The   Italian art form of comedy, acrobatic  dancing,  and  pantomime,  commedia dell’arte, dated back to the  sixteenth  century,  but  would  ultimately  change  the  strict  formality  of the French  ballet
school. Productions that were more geared to country life, based on the Italian characters of commedia dell’arte, appealed to the middle-class and were very successful. The commedia dell’arte was the  precursor to the  ballet d’action, which  is  action  and gesture  with  dance as  the
21

35 Lee,  pg. 65-68
36 Ibid., pg. 73
37 Ibid., pg. 75
38 Ibid., pg. 77
39 Ibid., pg. 83

story line. Both the commedia dell’arte and the ballet d’action would be the foundation and inspiration  for  the Tricorne.
In the eighteenth century, Charles III in Spain abolished the 1499 law against  the Romani which enabled them to come out of hiding. Some of them settled down in Gitanerias, or Gitano quarters, which were often caves where  they  had sought  refuge  from  persecution  in  previous times.40 The  traditions  and culture  of Andalusia  were more  compatible  with  the  customs  of the Orient  than other  parts of Spain,  because  it  was the heart  of Arab rule.  The Romani  had assimilated  the  customs  of the  Middle  East  over their  long  migration  from  their  genesis  in  India, so they  found  Andalusia  welcoming.  An acculturation  began  between the two  groups  of people that  eventually  led to Flamenco.  The  Gitanos absorbed the  local  traditions   in  music   and dance and performed  this  cultural  hybrid  for the  audience  of the   region.
In addition to the innovations of choreographers  in  Europe,  professional  ballerinas contributed   to the  advancement   of the  art of Classical  Ballet.   La Camargo  (1710-1770) performed light, brilliant footwork and excellent jumps, so it was necessary for her to modify her costumes  by shortening  her  skirt  and removing  the heels  from  her  shoes.41  In contrast,  the long
skirts and dresses worn by female Flamenco dancers have remained more or less the same  for centuries. By 1776, the choreographer  Jean Georges  Noverre’s ideas  influenced  ba let  in  most of the  capitals  of Europe.42   Noverre’s  determination  to change   choreography,   productions, costumes, scenery, music  and teaching  methods  were resisted  by those  who  believed  in conservatism  and  tradition.   However,  his  writings,   The Letters on Dancing and Ballets, reflected
22

his ideas and the progress he made toward the advancement of Classical Ballet.  One of the  principles of his dramatic ballet was the elimination of masques, and the use of stage make-up. Primary,   was his  idea  that  “the  validity  and  sincerity  of gestural  expression”43    was crucial.
Flamenco  dancers  did not  use masques  and  their  dancing  has always  been a form  of deeply  felt

expression.

Jean Dauberval (1742-1806) was influenced by Noverre’s theories. In 1789 he choreographed  La Fille Mal Gardee or the  un-chaperoned  daughter.  The  rustic  story is  considered to be the oldest classical ballet and a fine example of the ballet d’action. The ballet premiered thirteen days before the French Revolution. It was not only dedicated to the common  people rather than great heroes or wealthy kings, but it also represented the style of the Italian commedia dell’arte. Another disciple of Noverre was Salvatore Vigano.(1769-1821) He is considered to be “the first choreographer to come close to achieving the ancient ideal of perfect synthesis of music, dance, and mime.” His work at that time was named coreodramma.44 This composite  of music,  dance,  and mime,   was essential  to ballets  like  the  Three-cornered  Hat.
The turn of the  century  ended an exciting  period  of development  in  Classical  Ballet  and the nineteenth century marked the beginning  of the  Romantic  Era. Similar  to the history  of Flamenco, it was “the violent reaction  to philosophical,  political, social,  and economic ”45  of the time. It followed the dramatic onset of the French Revolution and the  start of the Industrial Revolution which brought social and  economic  change  in  Europe.  Romanticism  was the philosophy  of emotion  and individualism  in  the arts, the  opposite  of the  prior  belief  in  rational
23

ideas. The Romantic  Era continued  where  the  Middle  Ages  left  off and followed  the  Gothic theme. The ballets of this period had deep emotional content, centered around unrequited love stories, and the other worldliness of Sylphs and Willis.  The  female  dancer  became  more important than her male counterpart, because the protagonist of the narrative was usually the ballerina.   Paris  and London  became  the capitals  of the Romantic   ballet.46
One of the greatest ballets of the  Romantic  Era was La Sylphide, or The  Sylph,  presented for the first time in 1832. Jumping steps were perfected in order to create an ethereal effect and contrast the real from the unreal. Gas lights were introduced in  the  theater  which  created bluish, surreal lighting onstage. There  were trap doors to make a dancer  magically  appear or disappear,  and wiring to fly the dancer high above the  stage.  The most  important  innovation  was the  pointe  shoe introduced by Marie Taglioni,  the  ballerina  who performed  the  ballet.  Taglioni  was the “symbol of Romantic ba let’s Golden Age,” beginning in 1832 and ending  around  1870.  La Sylphide became the first  ballet  to be danced  on pointe, and the tradition  of pointe work is essential  today to the  Classical  Ballet   art form.47
The ballet Giselle premiered in 1841, and was considered the “creative high point” of the Romantic  ballet.  The  story had origins in  Gothic  legend,  and the  ballerina  Carlotta  Grisi  was chosen to dance the lead role. The  first  act of the  ballet  is  steeped in  the  tradition  of folk  dancing, or Character  dance. The  earthly  quality  of this  act is in  contrast  to the  light,   delicate  surreal second act. Giselle is  the  culmination  and masterpiece   of the  Romantic   Era of ballet.  Formal
24

pantomime was not used, but while the choreography was presented for a pure dancing experience,  it  conveyed  the message  of the  story.48
Another famous ballerina of this  period  was the Austrian  Fanny  Elssler,  1810-1884, who was acclaimed as a dramatic dancer. She had learned  the  various  folk  dances of Spain  along  with  the  balletic  style  of the  escuela bolero, or the bolero  school of the eighteenth  century.  This  was  the first experimentation with Spanish dance by a classical ballet dancer before Massine mixed Flamenco  with  ballet.  In 1836 she choreographed  and performed  the Cachucha at the Paris    Opera. She was hailed as the “Spaniard of the North” for her ski lful and passionate dancing  that  made  her and the  Cachucha a legend.49
By 1850, Classical  Ballet  flourished   all  over Europe  while   Flamenco  Dance  was developing  a repertory  in  music   cafés all  over  Spain.  Flamenco   Dance became  a singular   art in the  eighteenth  and nineteenth  century.50    The  Golden  Age  of Flamenco  commenced   in  1869 as the Golden Age of the Romantic ballet declined.  Arthur  Saint-Léon’s  ba let  Coppélia marked  the end of a great  era in  Classical  Ballet   in  1870. The  greatest  Flamenco  artists  began to emerge  in the Golden Age of Flamenco.  One was Juana  Vargas,  who  appears in  the  1917 film  by Massine, and who  danced beyond  the  end of the  Golden  Age  of Flamenco  in  1910.  As the  twentieth century  loomed  on the  horizon,  both dance forms  traveled  along  parallel  tracks that  would  meet  in  1918 with  Diaghilev’s   Ballets Russes,  where  they would  have  a profound  effect  on each other.

25

48 Lee,  pgs. 153-155

Chapter 3
The  History of Ballet in Russia

The history of Russian Ballet is critical to this study,  and separate  from  the history  of Classical Ba let, because it shapes our understanding of Diaghilev’s Ba lets Russes. Russian folk dancing  thrived  from  as early  as the tenth  century.   Invasions   and proximity  to foreign  lands helped  to develop  Russian  folk  dance  over time.  While   the Romani  assimilated   the local  dances of the country that they traveled  through,  the Russians  absorbed dance forms  from  the encounter with  those  who  passed through  their  land.  Again,  the  movement   of people for  political,   social, and economic reasons created new dances or added to old ones. Around 1250, street entertaine rs traveled all  over Russia  and dancers  often  contributed  to these  shows.  In the  middle  of the sixteenth  century,   the  Russian   Orthodox  Church  prohibited   the  street  entertainers   from continuing their performances. Around the same period, the monarchy in Spain had outlawed the Romani  from  their  nomadic  existence.   In Europe,  the  Renaissance   was at its  peak, and the
foundation  of Classical  Ballet   was being constructed.1

The lavish  court  ballets  of Louis  XIV were discussed  in  Russia,  as diplomats  and travelers would recount the splendor of entertainment in  France. The  Romanov  court  tried  to imitate these spectacles  and was praised  by the  Russian  nobility,  even though  they  fell  short  of the bravura of their French peers. The  Russian  Czar Peter the  Great toured  Europe  in  1697 and the trip changed the cultural destiny of Russia. After observing western culture, he decided to Europeanize   his  country  by inviting  the  best artists,  architects,  engineers,   and scientists   from
26

Europe  to westernize  Russia.  He restored  the  capital  city  of St. Petersburg  with  Italian  palaces and Austrian decoration.  The  baroque fashion  style  was adopted and mastering  the  French  language became an objective. When  Peter the Great traveled  across Europe,  he  acquired  a taste for  theatrical  dancing,   especially  the masked  ballets  in  Paris,  and introduced  them  in  his  court.2
Again, the idea of encounter between Europe and Russia in the eighteenth century, brought an exchange  which  would  later  inspire   Diaghilev’s   Ba lets  Russes.
Dancing masters were necessary to teach enthusiastic nobles social dance. Under Peter’s successor,  Czarina  Anna,  the French  ballet  master  Jean Baptiste  Landé  taught  Russian  cadets court dances. Later, he asked permission to teach beyond  ballroom  dance  and begin  a danse d’école. He presented his students in the opera La Forza dell’amore e dell’odio in 1736, and this marked the first professional ballet divertissement in  Russia.  In 1738, the  St. Petersburg  Ballet School was formed, and eventually moved to the imperial palace. The  first  professional  ballet  dancers, teachers, and choreographers, came  from  France  and Italy.3  An Italian  named  Fossano took over the dance school after Landé. He was a successful pantomime artist of the  Commedia d’arte, and taught  his  students  acrobatic  jumps.  The  Commedia d’arte was the  underpinning  of the  Three-cornered Hat with  acrobatics,  satire,  dancing,   and stereotype roles.
Empress Marie Thérèse of Austria sent her ballet master,  Hilverding,  to St. Petersburg  to  raise the quality of ballet in the Russian court. Hilverding presented the  ballet d‘action in  Russia. Ballet in Russia did not have to overcome  the  European  structure  of opera and dance together.  It was presumed  to be a separate art from  the  very beginning.   The  most  famous  Czarina  of all,
27

2  Lee,   pg. 183

Catherine  the  Great, carried  dance to the next  level  and established  Russia  as a European  power.  In 1766, she  instituted   the  Directorate  of the  Imperial  Theaters  which  gave  tremendous   support to the  performing  arts. She built two large  theaters  in  Moscow and St. Petersburg  that  could contain  large  scale  ballet  and opera productions.  While  Catherine  was in  power, wealthy landowners formed ballet schools and constructed theaters on their land. Foreign dance masters instructed  the  landowner’s   serfs,  thus  creating  serf dancers  who  are considered  to be a phenomenon in Russian  culture.4  This  can be compared  to the slave  dancers  that  existed  for centuries in the Middle East when the Moors brought them to Spain to entertain  at the  court.  By  1800, serf dancers were absorbed into the dance companies of the Imperial Theaters, because the expense  of training  these  dancers was too much  for  landowners   to sustain.5
Hilverding’s student,  Gasparo  Angiolini,   became  the ba let  master  for the  Imperial  Ba let in 1766. He worked for  many  years  in  Russia  and made  a great  impact  on ballet.  As choreographer,  Angiolini   mounted  old  and new  productions,   choosing  Russian  stories  and folklore   for themes.  The  custom  of a foreign   choreographer   mounting  ballets  based on stories and themes of their adoptive country has been repeated in history. One example is the Russian choreographer  Leonide  Massine  and his  Spanish  ballet,  Three-cornered Hat.  Angiolini   believed
that ballet  conveyed  its  full  potential  of beauty when  it  stirred  the emotions   of its  audience.  6   The

idea that dance is beautiful when it stirs the emotions of its audience is  not  unique  to Classical Ballet,  but  is also  valid   in  Flamenco  dance.
The French ballet master,  Charles-Louis Didelot  is  remembered  in  dance  history  as the 28
4 Lee,  pg. 186
5 Ibid., pg. 186
6 Ibid., pgs. 186-187

father of Russian ballet. He made his debut as a choreographer  with  Apollo et Daphne in  1802 at  the Hermitage Theater in Russia. As a teacher in the danse d’école he took his students to a high technical level, especially with pas de deux work. Didelot taught supported  arabesques and  supported  pirouettes in Classical Ballet.7	In stage  production,  he is  credited  with  the
advancement of flying dancers in a seemingly effortless manner  and to the  amazement  of his  audience. During the War of 1812, Didelot was forced to leave Russia and eventually returned to France where he briefly directed  the  Paris  Opera. When the war was over,  he returned  to Russia.8  As a choreographer, he combined “Noverre’s Enlightenment classicism to the  emotionalism  associated  with  the  Romantic   Era.” “Didelot’s  great legacy  to the  ba letic   body of knowledge
was his  development   of danced mime   and  mimed   dance.”9   Massine  later  set out to demonstrate

this in the Tricorne by dancing mime and miming dance,  especially  in  his  role  of the Miller.  While Didelot’s accomplishments in pedagogy  were outstanding,  his  goal was to make  ballet  “the  soulful  expression  of an idea.”10
St. Petersburg was at its peak in theater,  opera, and ballet  by 1800, and with  the  patronage of the  Czar, the  Imperial  Ballet  of Russia  emerged  as an important   ballet  company.  The
Romantic   era of ballet  brought  many  foreign  artists  to Russia.  French and Italian  dancers,  dancing masters, and choreographers were welcomed in St. Petersburg and Moscow. One of the famous  guest  artists  was Marie  Taglioni   and she was followed   by other  ballerinas   of the Romantic   Ballet,  Elssler,   Grisi,  and Cerrito.  The  French  choreographer,  Jules  Perrot, was engaged  as the ballet  master  for  the  Imperial  Ballet  in  1849. He revised  the choreography  for  the
29

7 Lee.  pg. 190
8 Ibid., pgs. 193-194

ballet Giselle in Russia, and reclaimed his  right  as co-author.  This  recognition  had been denied  to  him at the Paris Opera, because of political reasons. The influence of foreign artists brought the Romantic   era to the  doorstep of Russia.11
Perrot filled the void  left  by Didelot  at the Imperial  ballet  ten years  before. “He  was  admired in Russia as a poet of movement.”12 Arthur Saint-Léon succeeded Perrot and created the famous ballet The Little Hump-backed Horse from a Russian fairytale in 1864. He returned to the Paris Opera in 1868 where he choreographed his ballet  Coppélia in  1870.13  When  Arthur  Saint- Léon left  the  Imperial  Ballet  in  1868, the role  of ballet  master  was awarded to the   French
choreographer, Marius Petipa. With Petipa at the helm, Russia once again became the  heart  of Classical Ballet internationally. For the next thirty years, he blended the technical Russian accomplishments with the attainments of the Romantic era. From Perrot he learned how to pull together  a well-prepared  corps de ballet  and from  Saint-Léon  how  to transfer  the unique   gifts   of a ballerina to the ballet. The inspiration of both Perrot and Saint-Léon was significant to Petipa’s choreography, La Bayadère (1877), The Sleeping Beauty (1890), and Swan Lake (1895).14  Massine  was exposed  to the  tradition  of full-length  ballets  in  Russia  and they  were  the  models for his  Three-cornered Hat.
Petipa initiated the  tradition  of pointe  work for all  female dancers.  Soloists  were usually the only performers who danced on pointe. La Bayadère was the  first  ballet  that  the  corps de ballet performed  wearing  pointe  shoes.  Petipa  is  also  responsible   for developing Character
30

11 Lee,  pg. 202
12 Ibid., pg. 203

Dance in the Imperial Ballet School program, after he introduced Russian folk  dances  in  his productions. Before he worked in  Russia,  he  had danced in  Madrid  and studied  Spanish  dance there.   Petipa  incorporated  the steps he  learned  at the  Spanish  escuela bolero into  his choreography. Character dance became mandatory  in  the  Russian  ballet  school  training  program and it is still today.15  The  study  of Character  Dance  in  a ballet  curriculum  would  help  Massine attain  his  expertise  in Flamenco.
As new challenging  steps, pointe  work, and  Character  were  added to the  curriculum,  there were more demands by the school. There were rigid physical requirements for potential candidates and an eight year program  was established.16  In comparison, Flamenco  does not  have  the  strict  physical  requirements   of Classical  Ballet  because  turnout  and high  extensions   are
unnecessary. There  is  a similarity  with  the  tradition  of teachers  handing  down their  knowledge  to the  next  generation  of dancers  in  both Flamenco   Dance  and Classical  Ballet.  The  length  of time for training is different for the two dance  forms.  Classical  Ballet  usually  demands  eight  years  of study, whereas mastering  Flamenco  Dance  depends  on the individual.  Another  disparity  between the two dance forms is the number of years a dancer can perform. While  Classical  Ballet  dancers  have  short  careers,  the Flamenco  dancer  is  less limited.
While   the  French contributed   choreographers   to the  Russian  ballet,  Italian  ballerinas were the principle soloists for the Imperial Ballet.  The  Italian  ballerina,  Pierina  Legnani  from  Milano’s La Scala, was engaged by Petipa for Cinderella in 1893. Her legendary fouettés (consecutive   turns)  en pointe  stunned  Russian  audiences.  Legnani  shared  her  secret: strong,  hard,
31

box-like pointe shoes, made by the Italian shoemaker,  Nicolini.  These  special  shoes helped  her to stay on pointe  and accomplish  her  fouettés.  The  Russians   adapted their  own shoes for  the  purpose  of advanced  pointe  performance.   In addition  to Italian  ballerinas,   the  great  maestro Enrico  Cecchetti  was invited   by Petipa  to teach at the  Imperial  Ballet  School.17   The  Italian
school was the foundation of the  escuela bolera which  is  important  to this  study.  The  Fandango and the Seguidilla are considered escuela bolera and Flamenco Dance, and both dances are in the ballet  Three-cornered Hat.
By 1901, only Russian dancers could perform in the Imperial Ballet. The composer Peter Tchaikovsky worked with Petipa and became the bridge between Russian heritage and Western culture. With the collaboration of Tchaikovsky, the high  point  in  Petipa’s  artistic  life  became  the ballet  Sleeping Beauty. The  dynamic   collaboration  of the Russian  composer  Tchaikovsky  with  the French choreographer  Petipa,  set a precedent  for the  Falla  and Massine  partnership  in Tricorne. The addition of more and more difficult steps called for  costume  modifications.  The Russian prima ballerina assoluta, Mathilda Kschessinka, known for her  strong  technique  and dynamic fouettés, pioneered the short costume we know today as the  tutu.  In contrast,  Flamenco skirts  continued   to remain  the traditional  ankle  length.18   The  Three-cornered Hat costumes  offer  a compromise.   They  are shorter  than  traditional  Flamenco   skirts  to accommodate  more movement,   but longer  than a tutu  in  order to retain  the Spanish   tradition.
Lev Ivanov  (1834-1901) was another  important   groundbreaker  of this  period.  He was

32

“responsible for  a closer  unification  of music  and movement  that  had not been known  at that time,”  in  Classical  Ballet.  This  unification  of music  and  dance has always  been a part of  Flamenco. Instead of music  accompanying  dance,  it  enters  the body of the Flamenco  dancer. Ivanov  choreographed   the ballet  The Nutcracker which  was outlined   in  structure  by Petipa  and the music  was composed  by Tchaikovsky.  In Swan Lake he  choreographed  Act II and  Act IV, while Petipa used his expertise to choreograph Act I and Act III. Again, Tchaikovsky was the composer of the legendary piece. Ivanov is  acknowledged  with  Petipa  “for  reconciling  the Italian and French  schools  and assisting  in  forging   a characteristic   Russian  school.”19
By the end of the nineteenth century, the Russian Imperial Ballet was one of the greatest companies in the world. While it was built by the  French and Italians,  the  spirit  of the  Russian dancers drove them to accomplish incredible achievements. The Russian folk  dance  was strong enough to survive any religious oppression, similar to the  survival  of the Romani  and Flamenco.  Their history has contributed  to their  perseverance.  When Igor  Stravinsky  said;  “Certain  Andalusian songs  remind me  of Russian  ones,”20  he was referring  to the  music  and dance of  Russia  akin to the Spanish  or more  precisely,   Andalusian.    But  most  of all,   he was referring  to the  fire  and passion  of the  soul that  both Russians   and Spanish  have  in  common  when  they dance.

33

Chapter  4, Part 1
The  Birth of the Ballets Russes

On the threshold  of the  twentieth-century,   the Russian  ballerina,   Anna  Pavlova,  traveled the far ends of the earth,  and her performances became  a window  into  the Russian  ballet.  Slowly, the  wonders  of Russian  art, music,  and dance were  exposed to world  audiences  as the  new  century was heralded in. In the beginning of the twentieth-century, Russian impresario  Serge  Diaghilev  and his  Ballets  Russes  would  revolutionize   ballet  forever.  Diaghilev’s   ba let renaissance would introduce the greatest dancers, choreographers,  composers,  and designers  in history.  In addition,  he launched   Russian  painting,   opera, and music   and he also  influenced   fashion and interior  design.  The  Ballets  Russes  productions The Firebird, Le Spectre de la Rose, and Apollo, along with Les Sylphides, and  Petrouchka, are still  performed  today. Diaghilev  received  the  title   of the  “Russian  Maecenas”  after  the Roman  patron of Horace and Virgil.1
Serge Diaghilev was born on March 19, 1872 in the Novgorad province  of Russia.  The family moved to Perm in 1882 and here he developed  his  love  for  the arts. In 1890 he was sent  to  the university  to study  law  and became  part of a circle  of artists,  among  them  Alexander  Benois and Leon Bakst.2 Along with law, he studied music at the Conservatoire and became attracted to painting. In 1896 Diaghilev became interested  in  ballet  and published  articles  on art. When he realized   he could  influence   people,  he became  a promoter.  3  He wrote in  a letter  to his
stepmother, “I think  I have  no real gifts.  A l  the  same, I think  I have  just found  my true  vocation,  34

1 Percival, pg. 1

being  a Maecenas.”4

In 1897, Diaghilev  began  to organize  art exhibits   and found  backing  for  his  new magazine, The World of Art. The magazine reviewed the visual and performing arts and was presented  with  superior  quality  to highlight   the  artwork and illustrations.5   The  magazine   closed in  1904 when  Diaghilev  lost  interest  in  it.  He organized  a successful  exhibit of Russian  art in 1905 under the imperial patronage, which led to exhibits in Paris, Berlin, and Vienna. After  this success,  he organized   concerts  in Paris  with  Glazunov,   Rachmaninov,   and Rimsky-Korsakov.6
The next step for Diaghilev was to bring the Russian opera to Paris, and Moussorgsky’s Boris Godunov was the first  to be performed  in   1908.7
There was another opera season the following  year  in  Paris,  and Diaghilev  added three short ballets to the program. Though strong in Russia, Classical Ballet had faded away after the Romantic   era in  Europe  and  the moment   was right  for the  resurgence.8   He decided  to present three ballets by the great choreographer, Michel Fokine, and one of them was Chopiniana which would later become known as Les Sylphides. Another was Le Pavillon d’Armide, which was performed in  1907 at the Imperial  Theater  in  Russia.  The third  ballet,  An Egyptian Night, would  be changed to Cleopatra. Fokine arranged the  dances for  the  opera Prince Igor and divertissements from  Petipa’s  full-length  ballets  were also  presented.  With  the  emphasis  on ballet,  the Ballets   Russes  was born and became  the  most  acclaimed   company  for twenty years.9
35

4 Percival, pg. 13
5 Ibid., pg. 13
6 Ibid., pg. 15
7 Ibid., pg. 15,18

The Ballets Russes gave its first performance on May 19, 1909 at the Châtelet Theater in  Paris. Fokine, Pavlova, and Nijinsky performed the leading  roles  in  all  the  ballets.  Diaghilev generated  a rage  of excitement   and  enthusiasm   because his  productions  were  superior  to anything  the  public  had seen before.  “The  care taken in  preparing  and casting  his  programme   was matched  by the  art with  which  it  was presented  to the Parisian  public.”10 He cured every   detail from redecorating the theater to improving  the view  of the  stage for  the  audience  by removing extra seats.11 By 1911, the Ballets Russes was working continuously beginning with performances   in  Monte Carlo,  Paris,  and their  first  engagement   in London.12
Enrico Cecchetti,  who  had worked for many  years  in  Russia  as a ballet  teacher,  was invited by Diaghilev to teach the company dancers. This was an important  step to building  the  artistic  strength  of the  Ballets  Russes  and solidifying  the  high  level  of technique.13 When the  ballet company opened in London at Covent Garden on June  21, the  romantic  works  of the repertory were more  popular  with  the  public.  The Times of London  said: “And  above a l there  is a restraint of emotion. For this is one of the first principles of the art of expressive dancing,  that nothing must be taken too seriously…It is immensely  serious  as Art,  but never  for  a moment serious  as Life.”14    Five  days after  the Ballets   Russes  opened in  London,  the company  participated  in the  coronation  celebration  of King  Edward  VII.15
Nijinsky  made  his  debut  as a choreographer  with  the  ballet  L’Après-midi  d’un Faune.

36

10 Percival, pg. 27

The first performance took place in Paris on May 29, 1912, and the ballet created a scandal. With Diaghilev’s increasing promotion of Nijinsky, Fokine made the  decision  to leave  the company.16 Again  in  1913, the Paris  audiences  were once  again  scandalized   with  Nijinsky’s   ba let,  The Rite of Spring, music by Stravinsky.17 “The ba let was received at its first performance with shouts of derision  and whistles   making   it  difficult   for  the  dancers  to hear  the  music.”18     Later, on their South American  tour,  Diaghilev  fired  Nijinsky  because he  failed   to show  up for  his  performance  in  Carnaval. The  other  reason was because  Nijinsky  had married  while   on tour, and  it was rumored  that  Diaghilev  had been in  love  with  him.19
Fokine  was persuaded  to return  as choreographer  for the  Ballets  Russes.  He choreographed the ballet The Legend of Joseph in 1914, which introduced a new dancer, Leonide Massine.   World  War I broke out at the end of 1914, and the company  was practically   inoperative.20    In 1915, Massine  began to successfully  choreograph  for the  company,  and one   of
the ballets  was Parade, based on a circus  theme.  It was significant  because it  introduced  modernism and cubism to ballet.21  During  1917 and 1918, the last  two years of the war, the  company remained in Spain.  With  the  end of the  war, the Ballets  Russes  opened a season in London. Despite the success of Massine’s work, Diaghilev quarreled with him and later fired the choreographer/dancer.22
In 1921, Diaghilev produced the ballet  The Sleeping Princess which  was a modified  37
16 Percival, pg. 47
17 Ibid., pg. 48-49

version of Petipa’s The Sleeping Beauty. He hoped that  the  production  would  bring  in  huge profits, but while  the ballet  was an artistic  success,  financially  it  was not. After  Massine  had left  the  Ba lets  Russes,  Nijinsky’s sister,  Bronislava  Nijinska,  became the  company  choreographer. She choreographed the ballet Les Noces about a Russian peasant wedding in 1923, and it was a triumph that outlasted time.23 After Nijinska, Diaghilev tried a new choreographer,  George Balanchine. His legacy from the  Ballets  Russes  is the  ballet  Apollo (1928) composed  by Stravinsky,   and  The Prodigal Son (1929) by Prokofiev.24
In the  summer  of 1929, Diaghilev  said  goodbye  to his  company  for the  summer  vacation.

He died in  Venice  on August  19, 1929, and was buried  there  on the  island  of San Michele.25  “Had Serge Diaghilev never lived, it is safe to say twentieth century ballet would have been different.”26 Before the advent of the Ballets  Russes,  Classical  Ballet  was stereotyped  as exclusively French and Italian. The  company  demonstrated  not  only  the  dynamic  Russian technique, but also the strikingly  unusual  beauty  of the  dancers that  intrigued  audiences  all  over the world. Musically and visually Diaghilev’s ba lets were exciting to the viewer.  The  great impresario   called  himself   “an incorrigible   sensualist.”27
While Diaghilev  once described  himself  to his  stepmother  as a man with  “no  real gifts,”28  his contributions to the arts were immense.  He gave  ballet  an enormous  amount  of new  music  which  could  harmonically  accompany  dances  or could  be enjoyed  by ear in  a concert hall.29
38

23 Percival, pg. 60
24 Ibid., pg. 66
25 Ibid., pg. 68
26 Garafola, Lynn, Van Norman Baer, Nancy. The Ballets Russes and Its World, pg. 1. Yale University Press, New Haven 1999.

“If  ba let  music   today is  infinitely  more  varied  and  sophisticated   than  in  1900, it  is  largely because of Diaghilev.”30 The  music  of Igor Stravinsky  was an example  of this  idea.  Diaghilev chose to use established painters to design both the ballet scenery and the costumes. This created harmony between the scenery and costumes which was distinguishable,  because  the  separate costume  and scenery  designer  became one.  This  produced  a stylistic   and artistic  coherence inflamed  by imagination  and genius.  Pablo  Picasso’s  contribution  to the  ba let  Parade demonstrates  this   trend in  the  Ballets  Russes  productions.31
Diaghilev  did  not subscribe  to the  idea of rigid,  academic  danse d’école, or the   established   sequence  of the  pas de deux formatted  by Petipa.   Trick  steps like  fouetté turns  for the  female   dancer  were rejected  by Diaghilev,   and while   the  dancers  continued   to work on turnout with daily ballet classes, the use  of parallel  positions  became  popular  with  his choreographers. Diaghilev preferred  one-act ballets  reflected  in  his  choice  of Aurora’s Wedding, or Act III of Sleeping Beauty, but  he spared nothing  in  a production  and cost was irrelevant.32    The Ballets Russes did not have  a permanent  home  in  one theater  and no star  system.  33  The nomadic life of the Ballets Russes resembles that  of the Romani  pallbearers  of Flamenco.  Both carried their art on a long journey from home and introduced it to foreign countries. Diaghilev’s company would have  a great  impact  on Flamenco  Dance,  and transported  it  to a theatrical  level, but Flamenco   also enriched  the  Ballets  Russes  repertory  in  its  brief  exile   in Spain.

39

30 Garafola, Lynn, Van Norman Baer, pg. 4

Part II
Leonide  Massine and Flamenco

Leonide Massine was one of the greatest choreographers  of the  twentieth-century  and forever associated with  Diaghilev’s Ba lets  Russes.  He represents  a “unifying  thread  through decades of the  development   of art in  the West,” and  “an integral  part of the cultural  history  of  our century.”1 Before his career as a choreographer with the Ballets Russes, he was an acclaimed  dancer and actor in Russia. It is said that Diaghilev was the influence that encouraged Massine to continue in  ballet  rather  than  become  an actor.2  What  a huge  loss  to ballet  if  he had devoted himself to an acting career. Certainly his love of acting would  eventually  link  his  destiny  to  Flamenco,  because  an actor must  hone  into  his  inner   experience   to be expressive.  Flamenco  draws on the  internal  experience  for  expression  in  gestures  and movements.
Massine was born August 8, 1895 in Moscow, and  entered  the Imperial  Theater  School of Moscow in  1904. This  was around  the Petipa  and Ivanov  period  of Classical  Ballet  in  St.
Petersburg. The director of the  Bolshoi  was Alexander  Gorsky  and he favored  the dance-drama  idea rather than the standard academic  ballet.3 Dancers  started to depend on acting  for  their  roles and this had an impact on Massine who wanted to act more than dance.4 In 1905, the school was closed temporarily because of the revolution, and the “Bloody Sunday” massacre would leave a permanent  impression  on him.  The  theatrical  world  of fantasy  offered  a chance  for him  to flee from  the  horrors  of war outside  his  door.5  At the end of the war, he later  wrote in    his
40

1 García-Márquez, pg.xiii
2 Percival, pg. 80
3 García-Márquez, pg. 9

in  his  memoirs:   “By  the  time  I was fifteen  I had definitely  decided  that  I would  be an actor.”6

Massine continued to dance with the Moscow Imperial Theater, especially  in  Character  roles.7 In addition to dance and drama, Massine played the violin and the balalaika in order to understand  music  better.8   But  it  was his  friendship   with  the artist  Anatoli  Petrovich  Bolchakov that would have a profound effect on his development. He studied  art history  and learned  how  to draw and paint,  which  would  add more  depth to his  inner  artistic  experience.9    In his  character   and dramatic  roles,  Massine  was guided  by the  teachings   of the  Russian  drama  master,  Konstantin Stanislavsky.10  In August  of 1912, Massine  graduated  and was accepted into  the  Bolshoi  Ballet.11
Serge Diaghilev discovered Massine  while  he danced with  the Bolshoi  Theater  in  1913.  He was looking for the perfect dancer to perform the role of Joseph in The Legend of Joseph, a biblical ballet that would be choreographed by Fokine. Diaghilev  was impressed  by his performances in Swan Lake and Don Quixote.12 Massine was thrilled to be offered a contract to dance with the Ballets Russes because of its international fame, but he was undecided about abandoning the security of the  Bolshoi  Theater.13  In the end,  he accepted the offer  and left  Moscow with  Diaghilev  for Europe.  They  met  the company  in  Germany  and before  he worked
on The Legend of Joseph, he performed in Fokine’s Petrouchka. Massine admired Fokine and was influenced   by his  choreography.   He was fascinated   by Fokine’s  talent  in  mixing  dance,
41

6 García-Márquez, pg. 17
7 Ibid., pg. 18
8 Ibid., pg. 17
9 Ibid., pg. 21
10 Ibid., pg. 24, 25
11 Ibid., pg. 17
12 Ibid., pg. 31
13 Ibid., pg. 32

music,   drama,  and painting,   which  the  ballet  Petrouchka exemplified.14

When World  War I was declared  in  1914, the Ballets  Russes  was in  Paris.  For two years the  company  toured  Europe  and the  United  States, but in  1916 they arrived  on the shores  of Spain. King Alfonso XIII  invited  the  Ballets  Russes  to perform  at Madrid’s  Teatro  Real.  They arrived by boat at the port city of Cádiz, where centuries before  the  first  dancers from  the Middle East  arrived.  The  composer  Manuel  de Falla  took the company  sightseeing  and introduced  them to Flamenco   Dance.  Cádiz  captivated  Massine  and  Andalusia   left  an impression  on him.   This was an inspirational moment that would lead to his  eventual  masterpiece,  The Three-cornered  Hat.15 The pandemonium of the war would bring together  great  artists  and the  osmosis  of new artistic   ideas was bonded. From Cádiz  the Ballets   Russes  journeyed  to Madrid  for their   opening
at the Teatro Real. Madrid was immune to the  war in Europe,  so “aristocrats, millionaires,  artists,  and swindlers a l compounded the intrigue.” 16 Talented artists had escaped from their war-torn countries,   and as a result,  the quality  of the  arts and cultural  manifestations  was at a high     level.
Massine was awed by the El Escoriol  outside  of Madrid,  and he wrote  to Anatoli Petrovich, “In some parts there is the simplicity of Byzantium and everywhere  there  is  powerful spirit and mighty form.”17 Massine  also  wrote: “We are a l crazy about what  we see at the  Prado.”18 The paintings  of Goya  shaped  his  choreography,  but  the style  of Velásquez  intrigued him  and subsequently  affected  his  ballets.19    Velázquez’s  Las Meninas moved  him  deeply,  and
42

14 Garcia-Marquez, pg. 35
15 Ibid., pgs. 67, 68
16 Ibid., pg. 68
17 Ibid., pg. 70
18 Ibid., pg. 71
19 Ibid., pg. 71

with Diaghilev’s suggestion he choreographed a ba let. The ballet Las Meninas, with the music  Pavane by Fauré, was created in honor of the painter Velásquez.20 When  the Madrid  engagement was over, Diaghilev,  Massine,  and Falla,  visited   the cities  of Andalusia.   In Seville   Massine  saw  the Gothic  Cathedral  and was amazed  by “the  altar  dances  with  castanets,  and the  orchestra  in front of the altar.” While traveling in Andalusia, the three men met  the  Flamenco  dancer Félix Fernández García in the Café  Novedades, and later  he would  become  Massine’s  Flamenco teacher.21   Massine,  Diaghilev,   and Falla,  continued   on to Granada,  where  they were captivated
by its magical beauty. Again, Massine  wrote to Anatoli  Petrovich  when  he saw the Alhambra:  “I saw a miracle,  or was it  a wonderful,  uncommon  dream?22  Massine  attended  Romani  banquets, one in  Albaicín,   the old  Arabic  town,  and he  learned  more  and more  about the Romani
traditions.23

Manuel  de Falla  was interested  in  making  the Andalusian  canto jondo, emotional  songs  that  often  accompany  Flamenco  Dance,  popular  again.24   Before  the trip,  Falla  composed  music for  the theatrical  company,  Martínez  Síerras.  He composed  El amor brujo for  the famous Flamenco dancer, Pastora Imperio, who worked with the theatrical company. Also, Falla was composing music for the pantomime El Corregidor y la molinera for the Martínez Síerras group. Diaghilev and Massine loved his piece Nocturnos, and Diaghilev  wanted  Massine  to create a  Spanish ballet. Falla did not want  his  music  to accompany  a ballet,  so he  declined  to allow Nocturnos to be used.  However,  he offered  to make  El Corregidor y la molinera into  a ballet,
43

20 García-Márquez, pg. 75
21 Ibid., pg. 72
22 Ibid., pg. 73
23 Ibid., pg. 73
24 Ibid., pg. 72

which is based on the Spanish novel by Pedro Antonio  de Alarcón,  El Sombrero de tres picos.25 After their trip to Andalusia, Falla was inspired to change parts of El Corregidor and develop the dances.26  Diaghilev  and Massine  wanted  a stronger  more  dynamic   finale.27     Massine  wrote:
“Fa la’s   score, with  its  pulsating  rhythms,   played  by eleven  brass instruments,   seemed  to us very

exciting, and its blend of violence and passion was similar to much of the music of the local folk dances.”28 Falla wanted to study  Spanish  folk  dancing  and music  in  order to interpret  certain dances,  such as the  Farruca, in  a modern idiom.29
Diaghilev and Massine met Félix Fernández García in Madrid  where  he was dancing  in  a café. Diaghilev offered him a contract to join the company before leaving for  Barcelona.30  In Barcelona, Fernández García began to teach Massine Flamenco steps and introduced him  to his  teacher who  taught  him  the difficult  zapateado. Diaghilev,  Falla,  Massine,  repeated the  trip  they had made the year before in Andalusia, and this time Fernández García  joined  them.  In Seville, Massine  met  and filmed   the  famous  Flamenco  dancers,  Ramírez  and Macarrona,  and he  described their dancing as, “ferocious power and elegance.” They watched a group  of dancers  perform  the sevillana on the roof of house  in  Seville.31    Falla  listened   to a blind  man  play the guitar in the streets  of Grenada  and he hummed  the  melody  until  he could  write  it down.32  “He  later  used  that  melody  for the  sevillana in  the  second part of our ballet,  which  we finally  entitled
44

25 García-Márquez, pg. 107-108
26 Ibid., pgs. 73-74
27 Ibid., pg. 108
28 Leonide Massine. My Life in Ballet, pg. 115. Macmillan, London 1968.
29 Ibid., pg. 115
30 García-Márquez, pg. 109
31 Ibid., pgs. 109-110
32 Ibid., pg. 112

the  Tricorne,”33  or the Three-cornered Hat in English.

Massine felt he was almost  ready to choreograph  a Spanish  ballet  with  “a complete  fusion  of native  folk  dances  and classical  choreographic   techniques.   “Through  my  study  of Spanish music and of the paintings of El Greco, Goya, Ribera  and Velásquez, I had widened  my understanding  of the  dignity  and passion  of the  Spanish  temperament. ”34	Massine  returned  to Barcelona where he says: “I fi led my time by going  to watch bullfights, to which  I became addicted.”35   He discovered  that  the  elegant  movements  of the  bullfighter  were as perfect as   the
great Flamenco dancers. He declared; “I began to grasp the underlying ferocity  present  in  such dances as the Farruca.” He added to this;  I realized  too that  it  was essentially  the same  elements in  the  Spanish  temperament  which  had  produced both dances and their  national   sport.”36
Falla arrived in Barcelona with the completed score of the Three-cornered Hat, and at the same time Pablo Picasso had begun  the  designs  for costumes  and scenery.37  Massine  exchanged ideas for the new ba let and folklore with Fa la. The composer’s goal  was, “to capture  the  mood, rhythm, melodic forms, and cadences, but eschewed  the perpetuation  of the literal  popular  form, opting instead to try for a personal and original interpretation.”38  Massine  was always  the  actor before  the dancer  and he had a strong  relationship   with  character  styles  of movement.   The
Spanish dance idiom in The Three-cornered Hat would be one  of his  most  successful  depictions. He used “elements   from  the  circus,  commedia   de l’arte,  cinema,  and other  vernaculars  of
45

33 Massine, pg. 118
34 Massine, pg. 118-119
35 Ibid., pg. 122
36 Ibid., pg. 122

twentieth-century  folklore.”39

Tamara Karsavina would  dance the  role  of the Mi ler’s  wife  and  Massine  would  dance the role of the Miller. He had decided to dance  the part rather  than  Félix  Fernández  García because like most Flamenco dancers, his work was improvisational.  This  was a great disappointment for Fernández  García  because he had  taught  Massine  Flamenco,  and he would  not have a part in the ballet or credit for the work he had done.40 Karsavina was amazed  at Massine’s Spanish dancing and commented: “On the  Russian  stage  we had been used  to the balletic  stylization  of Spanish  dancing,   sugary  at its  best, but this  was the  very essence  of Spanish folk dancing.”41 In the Tricorne pas de deux,  Massine  describes  his  interpretation:  “I tried to achieve that quality of pursuit, of tension, teasing,  advancing  and retreating,  which  is  a salient feature of so many Spanish dances.”42 Massine also  wrote about  his  choreography: “Although the dance was mainly inspired by the fandango and with some flamenco passages, I added to it  a variety  of classical  movements.”43    The whole  cast of dancers  join  in  a jota finale.
This was the collaboration of Fa la’s music, Picasso’s costumes, and Massine’s choreography, a l related  to the  life   and work of the  painter Goya.44
The  Three-cornered Hat, or Tricorne, did not  premiere  in Spain,  but  opened in  London on July 22, 1919. Paradoxically, the name of the  theater  was the  Alhambra.  The  ballet  is  the synthesis   of classical  movements   and Spanish  folk  dance. “Massine  ski lfully  assimilated   into his
46

39 Garafola, and Van Norman Baer, pg. 257
40 García-Márquez, pgs. 131-132
41 Ibid., pg. 132
42 Massine, pg. 141

own personal idiom farruca, the fandango, the sevillana, and the jota, without sacrificing the individual   characteristics.”45   Massine  used the  dynamics   of Flamenco  and Spanish  dancing, which is the increasing  and decreasing  of speed exemplified in  the  Farruca.  Also,  he set the mood by using choreographic tools such as, tension, provocation, and advancing, retreating movements common in Spanish dance.46 This new genre is referred to as modern folk  character  ballet.   However,  the  Farruca and the  Fandango pertain  to Flamenco  dance, and therefore  belong  to a separate  category  within   the genre.47

47

45 García-Márquez, pg. 138

Chapter 5

Flamenco: Contrasts and Similarities to other Dance Forms
Character Dance

Character  dance  is considered  a branch of Classical  Ballet   and an essential  part of classical repertory. In Character dance, the traditions of dance in different nations are adapted to ballet for theatrical purposes. The word “character” suggests the portrayal  of the  attributes  that belong  to a particular  individual  or nation  and combined  with  the  local  dance styles.  The  steps and styles must be analyzed to fully understand the characteristics  of each nationality.  Some examples  of Character  dance include the  czardas,  mazurka,  polka,  tarantella,   and flamenco   used in  classical  ballet  to depict  the place  or country  in  the narrative  of a ballet.  Often  various  steps and national folk dance styles are mixed together and authenticity  is  lost.  Choreographers  try to avoid this assimilation.1 However,  many  dance  forms  were assimilated  to  create the art of Flamenco.  Here is  a comparison  and contrast  with  Flamenco  dance and  Character  dance including  the  history,  and  training  methods  of both dance  forms.
In Spain there  are three  main  styles  of Spanish  dance;  one is regional  and usually  featured  in open air festivals. The traditional folk dance of each region requires attention on the part of the dancer to preserve detail and character. Spanish classical dance is another style and is a form of eighteenth century Italian ballet. The third style is Flamenco,  with  ancient  roots in  Kathak  dance. There  are many  unconfirmed   theories  of how the Kathak  dance form  arrived  in  Spain,  and the
48

dance styles  assimilated   before  its  ultimate   arrival.2    Flamenco  is  still  performed  today in theatrical venues, the tablao, which is a typical Flamenco show, and in the caves of Granada for tourists.
There is no single country that represents Character dance.  Hungary,  Russia,  Poland,  and other eastern European countries contribute to character dance, along with Italy and Spain.  The National dances have not absorbed a cultural transformation on a long voyage as Flamenco experienced. But Character dance became  popular  all  over Europe  and  was not  isolated  to one place. It was performed in many of the  most  famous  ba lets  in  the late  1800’s. One of the earliest was Coppélia, and later Swan Lake, the  Nutcracker, and Don Quixote, exemplified  classical Spanish dancing. Character dance has also appeared in operas, operettas, and musicals, whereas Flamenco  has been more  limited   in  range.
A ballet dancer seeking a professional career needs to know Character as part of the necessary performance skills. Usually dancers from a classical background have an easier  time adapting to the dance form than those coming  from  other  disciplines.  But  classically  trained dancers often have difficulty with Flamenco because of posture. Flamenco dancers must  always  work with slightly bent  knees or in  demi-plié,  and this  is  an example  of a similarity  with Character dance, but the difference lies in the finish. Character dance finishes  a combination  or  dance with straight knees, whereas Flamenco ends in demi-plié. Prior  Character  training  can facilitate   the  study of Flamenco,  especially  for ballet   dancers.
The next comparison is  the position  of the  spine.  In Flamenco  dance the  shoulders  are 49
2 LaLagia. Spanish Dancing, A Practical Handbook by LaLagia , pgs.1-2. Publisher Pre Textos ed. November 29, 2012.

pulled back and the spine is extremely arched, while Character follows the upper  body rules  of Classical Ballet, which is the rib-cage lifted, the spine straight, and the épaulement, or use of the shoulders,  is  emphasized. The pelvis  swivels  in  Flamenco  especially  in  the figure  eight  design  of the  Rumba Gitana, whereas  the hips  are squarely  placed  in  Character  and Classical Ballet.
However, the Flamenco skirt is usually worn tighter to impede broad leg movements. In all  three  dance forms  the torso moves  circularly  and freely  with  the  sweeping  shape  of the   arms.
The  contrast  with  the  hand  shapes and movements  in  the two disciplines  is noteworthy. Here the Character  dance again  follows  the rules  of Classical  Ballet  along  with  palms  turned upward  and  extended  fingers.   In Flamenco,  the  fingers   create various  shapes  which  distinguish the  hands.  It is interesting  to note  that  the  arm positions  in  Flamenco  are closely  related  to Classical Ballet with two additional arm positions;  4th back with  one arm placed behind  the  back,  and 5th low (en bas) behind  the  back. En bas is the  same  in  Character  and Flamenco,  en avant, a
la seconde, and en haut have palms open. Castanets are used in Character and sometimes in Flamenco,  and there  is  hand  clapping  in  both dance forms.
Character  training  begins  at the  barre with  a series  of exercises  that  follow  a similar lesson plan to Classical Ballet. After the warm-up  at the barre, the class  proceeds with  center  work.3 Flamenco has no set exercises  or syllabus,  so the structure  of the class  depends  totally  on  the  teacher.  Steps have  been passed down to each generation  from  families  and teachers.  A typical class will begin  with  footwork  and proceed to the teacher’s  choreography  for  the lesson. One striking difference in the comparison of Character and Flamenco is music.  Character dance  works with  musical  counts  of 6 and 8, but Flamenco  uses  12 counts.   Both Character   and
50

Flamenco have a few of the same positions  of the  feet  as ballet  with  the  6th position  or parallel. There is an addition of an open 4th in Character and a planta natural or relaxed 3rd position in Flamenco. The shoes in both dance styles look the same on the surface, but Flamenco has rough, nail-like   metal  spikes  on the heels.
Ballet  and Character  are extroverted  in  emotion,   light,   outward  in movement,   and spatially cover wide open distances. Flamenco is introverted. The emotion erupts  and simmers internally  but  the space around  the  dancer remains  limited.	The  Character  dancer brings  their artistry  to the story that  accompanies the  ballet  they  are performing.  The  Flamenco  dancer performs to a theme story of life which  can be happy or sad. The  human emotions  are felt  deeply and come forth in the interpretation of the performer. The soul of Flamenco is called duende and without   it  the audience  does not become  involved   in  the  performance   but merely entertained.
“Fundamentally speaking, duende is a state of mind or emotion emanating from the subconscious, an imperceptible psychic communication or hypnotic energy which a performer  shares  with  his  or her audience.4
The  dancer almost  seems “possessed”  with  a fire  of emotion  that comes forth  in  a  so-called

dance ritual.

Diaghilev’s Ba lets Russes was instrumental in bringing Character dance  to the  western world from 1909-1929 when the company dominated the stage. The success of the Character Polovtsian  Dances  in  Prince Igor resulted  in  the birth  of one of the  greatest  ballet  companies in
51

history.5 Leonide Massine, choreographer  and dancer with  the  Ballets  Russes,  studied  Flamenco.  His experience with Character dance helped  him  to easily  adapt to Flamenco,  especially  the footwork. He used his experience with Character dance, Classical Ballet,  and Flamenco,  to choreograph  the  ballet  Three-cornered Hat in  1918 for  the Ballets  Russes,  and perform  the famous  “Miller’s  Dance”.
The  Bolero School and Flamenco

The next comparison is with the escuela bolero and Flamenco. The escuelo bolera, or the Bolero School has origins similar to Classical Ballet, a path much  different  from  Flamenco.  The Bolero  School combined  the  Italian  and French ballet  with  regional  Spanish  dance.  The  eighteenth  century  ballet  performances   changed  the presentation  of Classical  Bolero  in  the theater.  In the  nineteenth  century,   the  Bolero  became  Spain’s  “national   dance.” Today, similarities with  the Cecchetti  method  of classical  ballet  are visible   in  the  Bolero  school,  along with  the  Bournonville  or Danish  style  of ballet.  The  latter  is  similar to the nineteenth  century French balletic style which was part of the same period in history as the Spanish classical dance. Spanish folk  dance,  especially  from  Andalusia,  strongly  influenced the Bolero  School and Flamenco.  For this  reason,  there  is  often  confusion  in  identifying  one dance form  from  the other,
because  they both share steps from  Spanish  folk  dances.6

“Spanish dancing is such a vital force, it could not but have influenced ba let.” 7 There is evidence that Spanish dance influenced Classical Ballet. Arm  positions  and  épaulement always existed  in  Spanish  dancing  before  Classical  Ballet.  There  is  a “shared  inheritance”  with
52

5 Pavel, pg. 2
6 Marina Grut. The Bolero School, pg. 6. DANCE BOOKS. Copyright by Marina Grut 2002.

Cecchetti’s pas de bourreé couru and  the Bolero  School piffa y pas de bourreé. The ballet  step  pas de basque belongs to the syllabus of the  escuela bolera and came  from  a regional  Spanish dance. Contrary to what many think, Spanish  dance is  not ballet  with  castanets.  A ballet  dancer would  need extra  study  to accomplish  difficult   jumps  while   performing  with  castanets.8   In
Spanish dance, the zapatilla, or ballet slippers, are the primary  shoes  used for  dancing  because  of the high and difficult jumps  executed.  When the  Bolero  is  performed  in  a theatrical  venue,  the female dancer usually wears pointe shoes. However, there are dances that use the flamenco shoe, particularly  those  with  the  golpe punta y talon.
The Sevillanas in the escuela bolera comes from an Andalusian folk dance. However, the Sevillanas is associated more and more with Flamenco because of its connection  with  Andalusia.  Here is an example where the three dance forms, Bolero,  folk,  and Flamenco,  became  mixed together.9   The  Sevillanas chorus  step was used by the ballet  choreographers  Bournonville   in    his
Spanish ballet, Seguidilla, and Petipa in Don Quixote. Later, the step was used by Massine in the Dance of the Neighbors in the Three-cornered Hat. The posture of the back in the Sevillanas interpreted  by Classical  Ballet  choreographers  was swayed,  perhaps  a reflection  of the  matador
stance or an exaggeration for theatrical purposes. But according to the Bolero  School,  the sway back position was misunderstood by ballet choreographers.10 Bolero dancers who perform the Sevillanas have very straight  backs to support  the  technical  difficulties that  challenge  them  in other steps.11
53

In the early nineteenth  century,  the Escuela  Bolera  Andaluza  in  Cádiz  incorporated Flamenco with  the Bolero.  The  Flamenco  Alegrías and Soleares were performed  in  a classical style.  “The  local  dance  masters  seem to have  created these  dances  for their   studios  from  the street  forms.”12    In the  early  twentieth  century,  Flamenco  and the Bolero  were performed    together
on the same tablao or stage. The cuadro, or picture, contained a group of dancers and musicians working together. The classical cuadro flamenco performed the first part of the show, and the  cuadro bolero danced in  the second  half.13
Spanish regional dancing, Flamenco, Bolero, have something  in  common:  shouting  and  hand clapping which is called jaleo.14 In contrast to Flamenco,  female dancers  performing the Bolero wear much shorter skirts to accommodate more  movement,  especially  jumps.  Both Flamenco  and the  Bolero  steps and  movements  were handed  down from  generation  to generation. However, in the late nineteenth century, Angel Pericet Carmona created a graded curriculum based on the steps and movements that he inherited from his  family.15 The  Pericet system  is  studied  worldwide,   whereas  Flamenco  to this  day has no graded  curriculum.

54

Chapter 6
Analysis  of the  Three-cornered Hat Ballet

The Farruca

The  Farruca is  a dance which  “embodies   a l the technique   of the  other  Flamenco dances.” For this reason, “it is the first dance that a l children learn.”1 The  name  of the dance originates from  a song  brought  south  to Andalusia  by workers from  Galicia,  Spain.  The  meaning of the word Farruca is debated. Some authorities say it is the bagpipe used in the northwestern province  of Galicia  and the name  of the  song.  Others  say it  is  used to describe  the northerners from Asturias and Galicia,  along  with  the adjectives  “brave”  and “courageous.”  Flamenco  music has roots in  Andalusia,   so the  Farruca was adopted into  the  art form  because  of musical similarity and its ability to adapt. In the late nineteenth century, the Spanish  musician  Ramon  Montoya  introduced  Farruca music   on the guitar.   A Gitano dancer from  Andalusia   created dance steps and movements   to the  Farruca music.  El Faico  was the Flamenco  dancer  from  Triana  Seville that  introduced  the dance  in  Andalusia.  The  Farucca is  usually  danced by a man, but women  have  also  performed  the  dance. Women  wear riding  habits  or trousers  with  a high
waist (pantalones cenidos).2  The  Farruca does not  send an emotional  message,  describe  the pain of the Romani, or the story of the assimilation of steps and movements on a long journey across centuries and countries  by a group  of nomads.  It is  simply dancing,  and is  appreciated  for  its technical virtuosity. Two impressive and exciting movements are the  caída and the  vuelta quebradita.3
55

1  La Meri,  pg. 88

The  paso de caída is  a falling  or dropping  step onto  the knees,  usually  preceded by a  rapid turn (vuelta) The “timing is flexible and it can be used for punctuation within  a dance by reversing  the action.  The  fall  comes  first,  followed   by a sudden  spring  to a vertical  position  on  the ba ls of the  feet,  which  is accented  on the  second count.”  Usua ly  the  step is  performed  by lifting up the ball of the right foot, similar to a ballet relevé. The left leg is bent with  the left  foot  touching the knee resembling a ballet passé with the leg turned in. The  arms  are in  a low  fourth position  and the body is  arched  in  a slight   cambré. The  dancer lunges   forward  onto the  right knee
with  the  left  leg  bent.4    Female  dancers use a slower  caída and a slow,  circular  vuelta to  their
knees “a lowing  their  skirts  to lie  dramatically  on the  floor  encircling  their  kneeling   figures.”5

The  vuelta quebradita, or small, broken,  fractured  turn is  a turn  performed  with  a half- circle backbend. The footwork resembles the soutenu in Classical Ballet. The arms  are in  fourth position  with  the  left  arm up and the  right  foot  front  in  third  position.  The  torso bends to the left  and the ball of the left foot  crosses over the  right  foot.  At the  same time  the arms  change  position after passing through first position.  Turning  right  on the  balls  of the  feet,  the  arms pass in  front  of the face and change back to the original position. A backbend is made on the turn and the body is inclined   over the right  thigh.6	The  paseo de farruca is  the promenade  or walk  in the Farruca used in  the more  melancholic  phrases  of music.  In addition,  the stance  of the bullfighter  can be seen in  many  final poses.
The Farruca is in a 2/4 signature,  and only  two other Flamenco  dances have  this  tempo;  the  Tango and  the Garrotín. The  majority  of Flamenco  dances are in  the  3/4 and 3/8 time.   The
56

4 Vittucci, pg. 158
5 Ibid., pg. 44

tiempo de farruca is defined as time marked to the Farruca rhythm, and the name of the step that marks the time. This “time-marking step” is performed in the beginning  of the  Farruca or during  more  difficult  versions  of the  dance. Again,  the  arms  are placed  in  a low  fourth  position  with  the left arm front  and the  feet  are parallel.  The ball  of the right foot beats the  floor  on the first  count.  On the second count, the same leg extends forward close  to the  floor.  The  ball  of the  right  foot touches the floor  again  on count  three  and the left  foot  joins  the right on count  four.  The  step moves  backward but the  body is  always  kept at the  same  level.  The  fingers   snap  to the  rhythm, and this  is  defined  as pitos.7
The zapateado, or the dance rhythms made  with  shoes, defines  the  essence  of all Flamenco dance.  It is  a technique  that  uses  “rhythmic  and counter  rhythmic  patterns  made  by any part of the shoe, or zapato.” This includes stamps, soft brushing steps, heel beats, and “whatever  toe-heel sound  combinations  the dancer can make  with  his  shoes.”8   In the   Farruca,
the footwork is very strong and balances the dynamic leaps, turns, and falls that belong  to this particular Flamenco dance. However, “the greatest difficulty consists  in  the  contretemps beats which alternate with its own special paces.”9 The  contratiempo, which  means  against  time  or count,  is  produced  on the offbeat  or between the  beats and creates an exciting   effect.10
The  remachos describes  the sounds  or rhythmic  pattern performed  in  the  Farruca. “Its name comes from the hammering action of the lower leg, as though it were pounding a nail down firmly.”11	The  remachos begins  in  a third  position  with  the left  foot  front  or parallel  feet
57

7 Vittucci, pg. 237
8 Ibid., pg. 267
9 José M. Caballero Bonald. Andalusian Dances, pg. 44
10 Vittucci, pg. 60
11 Ibid., pg. 209

facing toward stage right. The dancer faces the  audience  in  both preparations  and  knees are slightly bent. The step is executed in place and usually performed at the end of the dance. A syncopated small hop on the left foot launches the step. The  first  three  counts  is  a stamp  of the right foot and the third stamp is accented with  a hold  on count  four.  This  entire  sequence  is repeated three  times  consecutively  and  rapidly.12
The first visual example of the Farruca preserved on film was made more than one hundred  years  ago. In 1917, the choreographer  Leonide  Massine  from  Diaghilev’s   Ba lets
Russes,  filmed  the  Spanish Dancers. The  first  part was filmed   in  the  street and the second  part on a rooftop,  both backgrounds  in  Seville,  Spain.  While  the  first  part is  an excellent  documentary  to the legendary Flamenco  dancer, La Macarrona, the  second part of the film  we will  discuss  here.  The male  soloist  in  this  part is  the  famous  Flamenco  dancer, Ramírez,  and he performs  the  Farruca. We observe what Massine saw through  the camera  lens.  He concentrated  on the body  from the ankle up, but  surprisingly  did  not film  the footwork.  The  dancing  is more  technical,  the turns and jumps resembling Character dance, instead  of Flamenco  as we know it.  This  seemed  unusual  at the  time  that  I first  viewed  the film,   but later  this  phenomenon  was  explainable.
Flamenco has absorbed traditional Spanish folk dances and this applies to the element of Character dance in the Farruca. The body curve of Ramírez is highlighted in the film and it reflects  the  proud stance  of the  bullfighter   that  Massine  had studied.
After  viewing  this  film,   I observed  and studied  the  Farruca choreographed  for  the

Mi ler’s Dance in the ba let Three-cornered Hat. The original  1937 film  of the  Three-cornered Hat, I viewed  at the  New York Public  Library  for the  Performing  Arts with  the permission  of  the
58

Massine  family.   Tatiana  Massine  suggested   that  I watch another  film  in  which  her  father performed  the Farruca. It contained   steps from  the  Farruca he performed  in  the Mi ler’s  Dance in the Three-cornered Hat. After watching both films  I was glad  for  this  suggestion,  because  the 1937 version  was of poor quality  and difficult  to see clearly.   Also,  the black  and white  1937   movie contained  other  Spanish  dances in  addition  to the Farruca, but the  Farruca is  the only  dance that belongs to Flamenco. In Massine’s  solo  film,  there  was a stunning  similarity  to the  second part of the Spanish Dances with the dancer Ramirez. However, the Farruca has a limited amount of specific steps which is the reason why the steps are repeated. Flamenco has no set step patterns  or written  composition  because it  was handed  down from  generation  to generation,  usually  by family  members.
Massine’s performance was elegant but resembled ba let with its  external  energy.  The Farruca is one Flamenco dance that is more theatrical and less internal. Flamenco has a heavy connection with the earth,  but  the  Farruca uses the  earth as a springboard like  Classical  Ballet. Also, the energy of Flamenco  dance smolders  internally,  but  unlike  the  Farruca, dissipates externally. Massine’s  body curve  repeats  the stance  of the bu lfighter  which  he admired  so much. 13 At first it  seems  that  Massine  is  imitating  Spanish  dancing  with  ballet,  but  after  close observation  it  is evident  that  his  interpretation  of the  Farruca is  authentic.

59

Analysis of the  Miller’s Dance

In order to analyze the Farruca in the ballet Tricorne, a synopsis  of the narrative  is  imperative first to understand the context of the  dance. It is a Spanish  love  story that  begins  in  a  small village in Spain, and the  scene opens  with  the  miller  and his  wife.  The  governor  of the province, or Corregidor, arrives with an escort. He is dressed in fine clothes and wearing a three- cornered hat, which is a sign of his position, class, and power. The old Corregidor flirts  with  the miller’s   wife  but  she ignores  him  and he departs.	Here she dances  a lively   Fandango. The Corregidor returns and continues to pursue her, but  she pushes  him  away and  he falls.  The  miller with  his  wife   help  the  Corregidor to his  feet.  But  the angry  dignitary  threatens  both of them before  leaving  the  scene. The  miller   and his  wife  perform  a pas de deux.14
Evening comes and the villagers dance the Seguidillas in a festival  with  the  miller  and his  wife.  After  drinking  and  celebrating, the miller  performs  the  famous   Farruca when  soldiers  sent by the Corregidor arrest him.  With  the  miller  gone,  the Corregidor continues  to pursue  his  wife until she pushes him in the river.  The  miller  escapes, takes the  Corregidor’s drying  clothes  and wears them. The Corregidor has borrowed the miller’s dry clothes and he is arrested because of mistaken  identity.   When the  villagers   find  out  what  the  Corregidor tried  to do, they  drive  him out of the village. The jota is performed by the villagers along  with  the miller  and his  wife,  as a victory dance. A dummy representing the Corregidor is thrown in the air above the crowd as the curtain  falls.15
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14 George Balanchine, and Francis Mason. 101 Stories of the Great Ballets, pg. 495-496. Dolphin Book Doubleday & Company, Inc. New York 1975.

The Mi ler’s Dance,  or the Farruca performed  by Massine,  is the  link  between Flamenco and Classical Ballet. I will analyze the Mi ler’s Dance performed by Patrick Dupond  of the  Paris Opera Ballet.  It is  two minutes   and fifteen  seconds  in length.	The  Spanish  terminology of the dance steps is included. I will compare the Spanish steps to similar  ballet  steps, and point  out the  steps that  are unique  to ballet  if  any.
The  Miller’s Dance

The dancer begins kneeling on his left knee, arrodillasse, and claps his hands with muffled sounds, palmas sordas. The dancer  rises,  rastreado, facing  a diagonal  downstage  right, en diagonal anterior derecha. He takes one step, semipunta, or on half-pointe, paseo de farruca, on his  left  leg  with  the  right  leg bent  in  attitude pose, actitud, the  left  arm is  front  in  4th position palms  down.  The  movement   is  repeated with  the  other  leg,  followed   by running   steps, carrerillas,  then  fast  double  stamps,  golpes, right  and left  twice,  hands  flat  on pelvis.    With parallel  feet  on semipunta, arms  in  4th position  with  right  arm front,  the  dancer performs  a half turn to the left, media vuelta semipunta, change  arms  to 4th position  with  left  arm front  to downstage left,  en diagonal anterior izquierda.  The  actitud in  this  dance is  similar to the attitude in ballet, though in  ballet  the  dancer  holds  the  leg  higher. The  media vuelta semipunta is  closely akin  to detourné in ballet.
En diagonal, the dancer  takes a step left  with  parallel  feet  semipunta pose, remate, and the  left arm opens with the right front in  4th position,  then  changes  back to the  left  arm.  He stamps, golpe, with the right foot front, and the left foot back, semipunta, and snaps fingers, pitos. This is followed   by the right   foot golpe, saltado, on right  foot,  cabriola, half  scissor  kick,  artasi-otsiko,
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with the right leg, and arms  in  4th position,  palms  down, using the opposite  arm with  the  working leg. This  is  repeated another  time  left.  The  left  foot  golpe with  right  foot  semipunta is repeated two times, then four times rapidly, with  the  arms  in  1st position,  palms  down, a pressing  up and  down movement with the hands. The dancer  steps on the  right  foot  with  the  left  leg  to the  side, paso lado, and the left arm is straight  to the side  over  the leg  with  the  palm  down, and the  right  arm bent with  the  palm  to the  chest.  There  is  a step jump,  saltado, on the  left  foot  to face upstage, atras, and arms  are closed with  palms  facing  the  chest.  A circular  movement  with  the right leg  is performed  during  the jump  while  facing  back, campanela saltado. The saltado is like  the  sauté in  ballet  and the  artasi-otsiko is  similar   to the ballet  ballotte.  The cabriola  resembles the cabriole in ballet however in ballet the knees are usually  straight.  The  campanela saltado is similar   to a double  rond de jambe en l’air sauté.
The dancer brings both legs  together  and a salto with  a media vuelta is  executed  with hands flat on the pelvis. This is similar to half of a tour en l’air in ballet. The passo lado right preparation is made for a pirouette with the  arms  in  4th position,  right arm front.  The  action  is turning back, vuelta de pirueta hacia atras. The turn is outside right with the right foot touching below the front of the knee. It is identical to the pirouette endehors in  Classical  Ballet.  In the  middle of the turn, the left foot  replaces  the  right  on the  back of the  knee, and the  right  leg becomes the working leg. The turning action is front, vuelta de pirueta hacia adelante which is similar to a pirouette endedans. The arms are placed  in  a low  1st position  for  both turns.  The dancer falls  on the  left  knee, caída, from the  vuelta, and both hands  are placed  on the  left   hip.
The  arms  open from  right  to left  with  sweeping  movements.

Slowly  the  dancer  rises,  rastreado, to actitud, arms  5th position  with  wrists  bent not

rounded.  The  dancer  performs  a slow  turn,  vuelta, like  the  ballet  soutenu and finishes   with  the left leg  to the  side,  lado. There  is  a pas de buret natural to the  right  side,  de lado derecho, with the left leg always crossing three times  front,  and the  left  arm straight  over the  left  leg,  right  arm  bent to the chest. This is pas de bourreé in ballet. The step finishes  with  a small  salto to fourth position facing diagonal left, en diagonal anterior izquierda, and the arms are up with the wrists turned to the right. The dancer steps back with  the  left  foot.  The  punta is  front  with  right  foot, shifting  weight,  punta back with  left  foot,  and arms  are up snapping  fingers,  pitos. Then  the dancer lifts  the bent  left  leg,  pivots  on the right to the  other corner,  and hits  the left  foot  with  the left  hand.  This   is  repeated another  two times.
The dancer takes three steps en diagonal anterior derecha and executes the esplante saltado cruzado into a paseo caída facing  en diagonal posterior derecha, arms  in  2nd position. The esplante saltado cruzado is similar to the ballet pas de basque and with both knees bent resembles a ballet pas de chat. The paseo caído is repeated another four times en diagonal  posterior derecha. The  arm that  corresponds  to the front  leg  is  lifted  then lowered  behind  the back with  each fall.   Fast single   golpes are performed  with  arms  in  1st position,   and hands perform an over, under, circular movement. The dancer jumps, salto, in fourth, left leg stretched straight  back, facing  de lado izquierdo, or stage  left.  The  left  arm is  up and the right arm is  open  to the  side.  The  legs  are brought  together  and a media vuelta is made  with  a hip  swivel,  arms open in  2nd, to diagonal  on semipunta.
The  dancer  makes three  double  golpes, beginning  with  the  left  foot  and alternating feet.

The hands  are flat  on the  pelvis.  There  is  a step back with  the right  foot,  low  arms  behind  the back, quinta baja detrás. The  right  foot  is then  brought  forward  with  five   golpes and  the left foot

in semipunta. The hands perform muffled claps, palmas sordas. The right foot is taken back in semipunta, and brought forward to repeat the golpes and semipunta. When the right  foot  is  back, the arms are in quinta baja detrás. The second time  the golpe step is repeated,  hand  claps  are palmas sordas followed by palmas secas, or dry claps which  are clear  and sharp  sounding.  There are two single   claps,  one double,  and one  single.   The  left  leg  comes  up  to an actitud, arms  in high 5th position, wrists bent. The  leg  comes  down to step preparation  with  right  leg  lado and  vuelta de pirueta hacia atras, arms  up in  5th position  on the  turn,  to caída on the left  knee, with the  arms  in quinta baja detrás, fifth   low back.
Slowly the  dancer  rises,  and steps on the  left  leg  bringing  both legs  together  in  fifth position, or quinta semipunta pose facing back en diagonal posterior derecha. Arms are up and wrists crossed. This position is balletic, but it also belongs  to Spanish  dancing.  The  dancer begins slowly turning right in place, en sitio, with  golpes and semipunta. The  step is  called  vuelta en  cuarto tiempo, and resembles  a pas de bourrée en tournant in  ballet.  There  is  one slow  full   turn in  four  steps, wrists  are crossed, palms  and fingers   open, and the  hands  flutter.   This  is  followed  by another two golpe with semipunta to face front, then one golpe with semipunta to face back, repeat to front,  repeat back, front,  back. The  right  arm opens  forward  guiding  the  turns,  and the  left arm replaces it on the turn. The dancer performs two golpe with  semipunta facing  atras. The  arms are in a closed, locked position behind the back and they sway right, left, right with the two  golpes.
With the left  leg the  dancer  steps side and  slowly  drags  the  right  leg to the back of the left in a balanceado cruzado, which is similar to the balance in  ballet,  then executes  a glisada to the  right  and another  balanceado cruzado to the  right.   The  arm that  is forward  corresponds  to the  leg

that is placed back. The glisada is similar  to the  glissade in  ballet.  The  step is  repeated to the  left but the second balanceado is substituted with  echado into  a matalarana right. The  echado is  a ballet jeté, and the matalarana is a pas de chat in ballet. This  is  repeated again  from  the balanceada cruzada left and echado with matalarana two more  times  but faster  as the  music builds speed and facing forward. The  left  arm is  in  4th position  on the first  matalarana and in  5th  on the third and fourth. The  four  balanceado combinations  have  been made  in  a semi-circle, and the dancer finishes in the center facing the audience, adelente. The dancer performs golpe with semipunta three times  fast  with  the  right  leg front  to en diagonal anterior izquierda.  The  front right leg is taken to the back, with one golpe and semipunta. The step is  repeated another  three times. The arms are straight to high 5th position on the  first  three  golpes, then  they sweep back quickly  in  quinta baja detrás on the single   golpe and semipunta back.
The dancer turns on the back foot to face en diagonal posterior derecha and takes small running steps, carrerillas, to the right corner. The right arm is up and the left arm is side. The carrerillas is like the ballet pas couru. Then  there  is a salto into  a preparation  with  the  right  leg lado, right arm in preparation 4th position, and the dancer takes a full run to en diagonal anterior derecha, ending  with  a voltereta, or an acrobatic  slide  on the  floor  to a finish,  remate, in  a standing  fifth  position  with  arms  in  1st  position,  palms  together,  one facing  up and the    other
down.

Now we can see how all of the prior comparisons, analysis, and historical documentations  link   together  the final  conclusion  of this   study.

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Chapter 7
Duende

Expression  in  Flamenco  is  critical  to an authentic   interpretation  in  the dance  performance, and it is different from Classical Ballet. Flamenco begins internally and the dancer expresses their  own story with  or without  an audience. Classical  Ballet  is  more  external  and follows   the  narrative  dictated  by another.  The  Classical  Ballet  dancer  performs  exclusively  for the  audience.  The  interior   “raging  flame”  that  erupts  during  the Flamenco   dancer’s  performance is  the embodiment  of duende, the soul of Flamenco.   It is  best described  in  these  words:
“The essence of Spanish dance is a hard-held passion which, like water bubbling in  a tea kettle,  only  now  and then pushes  the  lid  up a little   to boil over.”1
According  to the  ancient  Greeks, all  forms  of art, including  dance,  contain  the  Apollonian

and Dionysian  phenomena.   The  Apollonian elements   in  art forms  are considered  solemn, ordered, and perfect,  whereas  Dionysian  attributes  are irrational,   passionate,  and sensual. However,  while   Apollonian and  Dionysian are always  present  they are rarely  equal  in  an artwork,  but when  they are, the  balance  creates  a masterpiece.2      This   balance  is present in
Massine’s Farruca.  His  technique  is cultivated by the study  of Flamenco  and perfected  by years of Classical  Ballet  training,   but  there  is  the  integration  of passion  and sensuality   which  belongs to duende. The  Dionysian trance  of Flamenco  dancers  is  described  as: “a  fervor,  an unchaining  of the  senses,  a paroxysm  uniting  a singer  in  Moscow and a dancer  in  Seville,   Ankara musicians
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1 La Meri, pg. 108
2 Carol Lee,  pg. 2

and Jerez buleaeros in  the same  raging   flame.”3

The eighteenth century German writer and statesman, Goethe, defined duende as: “a mysterious   power that  everyone  feels  and no philosopher  can explain.”4   It can be paragoned  to  “A dance on a tightrope stretched  to breaking  point”5  and the  moment  that  the  Flamenco  dancer can no longer restrain the implosion of emotion.  This  is  achieved  through  the  everyday  risk  of living,   and cannot  be taught,  nor  can it repeat itself.	It is best generalized   as “outrageous expressivity.”6 The Spanish  poet, playwright,  and theater  director,  Federico  García  Lorca, wrote this about duende: “The duende, is not in the throat, but from within,  from  the very  soles  of the feet.”7
The ballerina, Tamara Karsavina, worried  that without  the  experience  of Spanish  culture  she would  not be able  to interpret  the  role  of the  mi ler’s  wife  in the  Three-cornered Hat.
Diaghilev asked Massine’s  Flamenco  teacher,  Félix  Fernández  García,  to perform for  Karsavina in the ballroom of the  Savoy Hotel in  London  where  the Ballets  Russes  members  were residing. She recounted  what  she  witnessed  at his  performance:
“I could  feel  the  impetuous,  half-savage instincts  within  him…The  rhythm  of his  steps, now staccato, now a whisper, and then again seeming to fill the large  room with  thunder, made this unseen performance all  the  more  dramatic.  We listened  to the  dancing enthralled.”8
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3 Bernard Leblon, pg. 8
4 Ibid., pg. 10
5 Ibid., pg. 10
6 Ibid, pg. 8
7 Ibid., pg. 10
8 García-Márquez, pgs. 132-133

Duende is the lifeblood  of Flamenco  and can be felt  in  the  zapateado steps that  connect  the earth to the  soul  of the dancer.
When the Three-cornered Hat opened in London, the English poet T.S. Eliot wrote of Massine’s performance: “Massine…seems to me  the greatest  actor whom  we have  in  London.”9  Eliot  felt;  “the  abstract gesture  of Massine,  which  symbolizes emotion,    is enormous.”10	He felt that  “emotion  in  art must  be transmitted  through  physical  images  analogous   to the  emotion.”11 These physical images  come  from  life  experience,  which  is  the  principle  of duende in  Flamenco. Eliot went on to write; “the art of every actor is in relation to his own age, and would perhaps be unintelligible to any other.”12 Massine  experienced the horrors  of war at an early  age  and perhaps this  helped  him  to feel  “the  cry of man morta ly  wounded  by destiny”13   that  the  Romani  proclaim in Flamenco.   Massine  described  his  performance   of the Farruca:
“I felt  instinctively  that  something  more  than perfect  technique   was needed here,  but it   was not until I had worked myself up in a frenzy that I was able to transcend my usual limitations…I   felt  an almost  electrical  interaction  between myself  and  the  spectators…  For one moment   it  seemed  as if  some  other  person within  me  was performing  the dance.14
As mentioned   before  in  Chapter 6, the  Farruca is  “pure  dancing”  and not  a narrative   about a life

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9 García-Márquez, pg. 140
10 Ibid., pg. 140
11 Ibid., pg. 140
12 Ibid., pg. 140
13 Bernard Leblon, pg. 55
14 García-Márquez, pg. 136

struggle expressed in steps and movements. However, the dancer’s  level  of technical  virtuosity  is what  tells  us a story of passion,  hard work, and sacrifice   reflecting  their  daily  life   for   years.
Duende, or the eruption of expressivity, is channeled through the steps and movements of “pure dancing”,   and Massine’s  performance  in  the  Three-cornered Hat epitomizes   this.

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The Conclusion

Flamenco Dance and Classical Ballet definitely  complimented  and influenced  each other from  the  moment  of their  historical  union   in  1917 with  Diaghilev’s   Ba lets   Russes.  The  two dance forms evolved separately  through  diverse  encounters over time,  but a third  dance  form  was not born from their union. The historical  research  of this  thesis  focused  on timelines,  geography, social  and  political   influences,   similarities   and  differences   between Flamenco   Dance  and Classical Ballet. The findings constructed the foundation  of this study.  Classical  Ballet  yielded extensive research material from writings,  paintings,  and sculptures,  whereas  more  information emerged  on Flamenco  Dance  when  the Romani  arrived  in  Spain.
There  were comparisons   and  contrasts  made  between Character  Dance, the  Bolero School, Flamenco, Classical Ballet, and Spanish folk dance. This examination was necessary to distinguish  one dance  form  from  another  in  order to decipher  Massine’s  choreography.   The Bolero  School shares  a huge  vocabulary  of steps and movements   from  Italian  and French Classical Ballet, but they added their own style from Spanish folk dancing. The  Spanish  regional dances were also assimilated into Flamenco and imitated in  Character  Dance,  so the overlap  can create confusion. When an individual dance is analyzed like the Farruca, the  mix  of other  dance forms is thoroughly  examined.  The classes  at the  University  of Oklahoma  were the beginning  of  my analysis on the compatibility of Classical Ballet with Flamenco. One example  was the  choreography of a group  of Flamenco  zapateado steps followed  by three  chainé turns  into  a saltado pose. The  chainés belong  to Classical  Ballet,  but  I discovered  later  that  the Spanish
version,  vuelta de pasos, belonged  to the  escuela bolera with  its  foundation  in  Classical   Ballet.

My thoughts on the fusion of Flamenco and Classical Ballet changed  as I furthered  my research over the course of three years. The word “fusion”  comes  to mind  as a permanent, inseparable blend,  but  each dance  form,  Flamenco  Dance  and Classical  Ballet,  exists  by itself. Thus, the word “union” describes better the way these  two dance  forms  work together.  Flamenco and Classical Ballet retain their individual form  and  are complimented  by their  partnership. I examined   the  combination  of other  dance forms  when they  are used  together,  and the  result  of this observation determined that two dance forms  are never  equally  represented  in  choreography.  The choreographer  is  the  creator, and can add or subtract  steps and  movements  in  a dance or piece, according  to his  or her creative  impulse,   without  set  rules.
Before the Farruca or Mi ler’s dance in the Tricorne begins,  the difference  between Flamenco Dance and Classical Ballet is striking. The Flamenco cuadro, a group of dancers and musicians, was performed  on small  stages  in  nightclubs  but later  moved  to theaters.  Classical Ballet was performed on large  stages  for  at least  one  hundred  years  when  the Ballets  Russes arrived in Spain. Massine was able to use more space in his choreography, so at first glance the Farruca resembles a ballet. However, much to my surprise, I discovered  that  there  are no ballet steps in his choreography of the Mi ler’s dance. The dispersion  of the  steps diverts  the  audience from the traditional dance, and the viewer sees a Spanish style ballet  painted  with  broad brushstrokes.  Here at work we see the true  genius of Leonide  Massine. For example,  the  caída,  or fall which belongs to the Farruca dance, is repeated five times  on a diagonal  covering  a great  deal of space.
The technique of Classical Ballet applied to different dance forms will enhance the performance  in a proscenium  setting  and this  can be seen in the  Mi ler’s   Dance.  The  higher   and

stronger execution of all jumps in the Farruca is noteworthy in Patrick Dupond’s performance in Tricorne, along with his precision in all  turns.  This  represents  the  Apollonian factor  of solemn control and perfection that is necessary to Classical Ballet.  The  Dionysian factor  is the  inner expression of passion and sensuality which is essential to Spanish dancing. The union of both the Apollonian and Dionysian  is  the partnership   or marriage   of Flamenco  and Classical  Ballet exhibited in  the  Mi ler’s  Dance  in  the  Three-cornered Hat.  This  answers  the first  question proposed by my thesis: whether there was a fusion of both dance forms. The  steps of both dance forms  did  not fuse  together,  but  the  style  and technique   of Classical  Ballet  fused  with  the Flamenco  steps in  the Farruca, or the Mi ler’s  Dance  in the  Three-cornered Hat.
The final question  I sought  to answer  was what  Flamenco  and  Classical  Ballet  can contribute to each other. In Flamenco, there is an emphasis on the  upper part of the body; hands,  arms, and the back. The  arched back of the  Flamenco  dancer is  similar  to the  posture of the  swan  in Swan Lake. Arms create more shapes in Flamenco, and the study  of Spanish  hand  movements would benefit Classical Ballet dancers. Musicality  is  improved  with  the  study  of Flamenco zapateado and palmas, or hand  clapping.   The  contact  with  the  floor  is  another  important   study that can benefit Classical Ballet. The energetic footwork pushing down into the  floor  creates a trajectory that ignites the  soul and  spirit  in  movement.  This  contact  with  the  earth erupts  and explodes in  the  dancer  revealing  the  unexplainable  emotion  of duende. It is  this  powerful channeling  of sufferance   that  tests  our lives   or the  sheer  joy of reaching  an incredible   goal.  This is  the  passion  of dance.  More duende is  needed in  Classical  Ballet,  rather  than  the  total dedication  to technical  perfection  and  virtuosity.
There  is  no doubt that  the  study  of Classical  Ballet  can help  the Flamenco  dancer

have a more  superb  and elegant  technique.  Many  Flamenco  schools  have  introduced Classical Ballet to their curriculum, through Diaghilev’s dance company. His  Ballets  Russes  company stimulated artistic curiosity all over Spain,  and one could  argue  that  the presence  of the  Ballets Russes in Spain helped to elevate Flamenco Dance  from  the  café de cante to the  theatrical  stage. The  work of Diaghilev  and Massine  continues   one hundred  years later  with  the  National  Ballet   of Spain, a dance company that combines both Flamenco and Classical Ballet with great success around the world today. The historical meeting of the Ballets Russes and Flamenco in Spain can ultimately  be summarized   in  this  quotation:
“Like  a l important  cultural  phenomena  it  was born of encounter.”    1

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1 Bernard Leblon. pg. 78

GLOSSARY SPANISH TERMINOLOGY
Actitud   A sudden,  static position.  Similar  to ballet  attitude with  the  working  leg   bent.
Adelente  Forward,  before  the audience.
Alegrias  Meaning  alegria, joy,  the Flamenco  dance  most  performed.
Arrodillasse  To set one’s  knee down.
Artasi-otsiko   Hitch kick.
Atras	Behind,  in  back of.
Balanceado cruzado    Balanced,  swayed  in  a cross manner  from  side  to side.
Cabriola  Goat leap, slap  or beat of the  sole  of the  shoe in  a leap.
Caída (paso de) Fall  or drop, mostly  used in  the Farruca. Campanela saltado Bell shape, circular leg-lifting action in a jump. Carrerillas   Small  running steps.
Compas   Rhythmic   cycle,  measure  of time.
Contratiempo   Against   time  or count.
De lado derecho  To his  or her  right   side.
De lado izquiedo    To his  or her left  side.
Duende  The  “soul”  of true Flamenco   dance. An emotion  coming  from  the   subconscious.
Echado   Thrown,  flung.
En diagonal anterior  derecha  Diagonal  front  right. En diagonal anterior  izquierdo  Diagonal  front  left. En diagonal posterior derecha Diagonal back right. En diagonal posterior izquierdo Diagonal  back left. En sitio In place.
Esplante  saltado cruzado    Setting  down the foot  sideways  in  a jump.
Fandango   Means “Go  and dance”.  One of the  oldest  Spanish  dances.

Farruca    A popular  flamenco   dance that  originated   as an Asturian  folk song.
Garrotín  A gypsy  dance with  a rhythm  like  the  farruca.
Glisada A slide  movement   similar   to a ballet  glissade.
Golpe  A strike  or hit  with  the foot.
Jaleo  Rhythmic   sound  accompanying  the performer.
Jota  Spanish  dance and its  music.
Matalarana  Means  kill  the  spider.   From the  escuela bolera, resembles  the ballet  pas de chat.
Media vuelta semipunta  Half-turn  on half-pointe.   Resembles   ballet demi-détourne.
Pas de buret  natural  Simple  bourrée.
Paseo de farruca  Walk, promenade,  in  a farruca.
Paso lado A step to the  side.
Pitos   Woodpeckers.  Finger  snaps.
Punta  Tip  of the toe.
Quinta  Fifth  position.
Remachos  Riveting,   flattening  movements   or sounds  performed  in  the farruca.
Remate  End,  finish,  conclusion.
Rastreado  Dragged, traced.
Saltado  Hopped, jumped,  like  ballet sauté.
Salto A hop, jump,  leap,  or skip.
Seguidillas  Joyous  dance  with  a small  continuation,   of steps performed  in couples.
Semipunta  Half-pointe.
Sevillanas  Dances  and songs  of Seville,   or Andalusia.
Siguiriyas  A dance expressing  the sorrows  and negative   emotional  state  of the  gypsies.
Soleares A gypsy  dance about  loneliness,   solitude,  and homesickness.
Tango  A popular  woman’s  solo. Dance  rhythm  of South America  or African   origin.
Tiempo  de farruca  Time   marked  to a farruca rhythm.
Voltereta   Rollovers   and somersaults,  tumbling.

Vuelta A turn  or rotation.
Vuelta de pirueta  hacia  adelante  A pirouette  or spinning  action  toward  the  front.
Vuelta de pirueta  hacia  atras   A pirouette  or spinning  action  toward  the back.
Vuelta en cuarta tiempo A turn in four counts. Vuelta quebradita A small, broken, fractured turn. Vuelta volada  A flying  turn.
Zambra   The  most Arabic  of flamenco   dance performed  by a woman.
Zapateado   Dance  rhythms   made  with shoes.
Zapato  Dance shoe.

FRENCH TERMINOLOGY
Arabesque  The  body is  supported  on one leg  with  the  other  extended  back. Attitude A position of the body supported on one leg with the other raised and bent. Balancé  Balancing  , shifting  the  leg from  one to the   other.
Ballotté Tossed.  Spring  into  the  air,  both legs  bent,  land  on one leg,  open the other  in developpé.
Cambré  Arched.  Bending  the  body from  the  waist  to the side  or back.
Chainés  Chain.  Continuous   fast  turns  in  a straight line.
Contretemps  Against   time.  Off-beat.
Detourné A turn in the direction of the back foot finishing with the opposite foot front. Fouettés Whipped. Consecutive turns in one place with a rond de jambe en l’air relevé. Glissade A gliding  step.
Jeté  Thrown.  A leap in  any direction  throwing  weight  from  one  foot to  the  other.
Pas couru  Running  steps to gain  momentum  for  a jump.
Pas de basque  A three  count  step. A folk  dance  of the Basques
Pas de bourreé  An old French  dance, step of the   bourrée.
Pas de bourrée  en tournant    Performed  turning,   outside  endehors or inside endedans.
Pas de chat Step of the  cat. One leg  in passé, jump  on that  leg,  so the  other  leg is  in  passé, close.
Passé  Passed. The  foot of the  working  leg passes the  knee of the  supporting  leg.
Pirouette  endedans  A turn  in  the  direction  of the supporting leg.
Pirouette endehors A turn in the direction of the  working  leg. Relevé Relifted. The raising of the body to pointe or demi-pointe. Rond de jambe  A semi-circle   with  the  working  leg.
Rond de jambe  en l’air sauté A jump  with  a circle  of the working  leg in  the   air.
Sauté Jump.
Soutenu  Sustained.  The  working  leg pulls  up close  to the supporting    leg.
Tour  en l’air The  dancer  springs  up in  fifth  position  then  turns  in  the air.

Bibliography

Balanchine, George and Mason, Francis. 101 Stories of the Great Ballets. Dolphin Book Doubleday  & Company,  Inc. New York  1975.
Borrow, George. The Zincoli: An Account of the Gypsies of Spain. Astounding Stories, Copyright   2015. www.Astounding-Stories.com
Buonaventura, Wendy. Serpent of the Nile: Women and Dance in the Arab World. Publishing Group,  Inc. 99 Seventh  Ave.,  Brooklyn,  New York 11215. Saqi Books. 1989, 1994, 1998.
Caballero Bonaldo, José M. Andalusian Dances. Editorial Noguer. SA. Barcelona. First Edition 1957.
Caroso, Fabritio. Nobilità di Dame, 1600. Sutton, Julia, translation and editing. Dover Publications,   Inc.,  New York. Copyright  1995.
Dance Masters of America, Ballet Terminology, Copyright 1969 by Dance Masters of America,  Inc.
Devi, Ragini. Dance Dialects of India. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. Private Limited. Bungalow   Road, Delhi  110007. Third   Revised  Edition,   Delhi 2002.
Garafola, Lynn. Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes. Oxford University Press. New York and Oxford 1989.
Garafola, Lynn and Baer, Nancy. The Ballets Russes and its World. Yale University Press, New Haven 1999.

Garcia-Marquez,   Vicente.  Massine: A Biography.  Knopf,  New York 1995.

Grut,  Marina.  The Bolero School.  DANCE BOOKS. Copyright  by Marina  Grut   2002.

Ivanova, Anna. Dance in Spain. Praeger Publishers, Inc. 111 Fourth Ave., New York. LaLagia. Spanish Dancing, A Practical Handbook by LaLagia. Publisher Pre Textos ed. November  29, 2012.
La Meri.  Spanish Dancing. A.S. Barnes  & Company,  New York. Copyright  1948  La  Meri.

Leblon, Bernard. Gypsies and Flamenco. University of Hertfordshire Press. Learning and Information Services. University of Hertfordshire, College Lane, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, AL109AB.  Copyright   1994 Bernard Leblon.
Lee, Carol. Ballet in Western Culture, A History of Its Origins  and Evolution.  Allyn  and Bacon, A Viacom Company, 160 Gould Street, Needham Heights,  MA 02494. Copyright  1999 by Allyn and Bacon.
Massine,  Leonide.  My Life in Ballet. Macmillan,   London  1968.

Pagels, Jurgen. Character Dance. Indiana University Press, Bloomington. Copyright 1984 by Jurgen  Pagels.
Percival,  John.  The World of Diaghilev. Studio  Vista/Dutton  Pictureback.  Great Britain    1971.

Vittucci, Matteo Marcellus.  The Language of Spanish Dance, A Dictionary and Reference Manual. Second Edition. Princeton Book Company, Publishers 2003. P.O. Box 831, Hightstown, New Jersey 08520-0831. Copyright   1990, 2003 by Matteo Marcellus   Vittucci.

K. Meira Goldberg, Ninotchka Devorah Bennahum,  and Michelle Hefner  Hayes.  Flamenco on  the Global Stage, Historical, Critical, and Theoretical Perspectives, Introduction. Marta Carrasco Benítez. Three Centuries of Flamenco:Some Brief Historical Notes. Kathy Milazzo. Ancient Dances of Cádiz, Puellae Gaditane and Creations of Myth. McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers.   Box 611, Jefferson,   North Carolina  28640. Copyright  2015.
Film: Massine, Leonide. Spanish Dancers. Film 1917. MGZIDF 4750 MGZHB 2-1000 #268. New York Public  Library  for  the Performing  Arts.  New York, New York.
Film: Staats, Massine, Legat. MGZIC 9-2788. New York Public Library for the Performing Arts. New York, New York.
Film:  Paris Opera Ballet: Picasso and Dance, Tricorne.  Kultur  Video   2005.

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